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teath’s Modern Language Series 





A 


COMPENDIOUS 


HRENCH GRAMMAR 


IN TWO INDEPENDENT PARTS 


(INTRODUCTORY AND ADVANCED) 


BY 


A. HJALMAR EDGREN, Pu.D. 


PROFESSOR OF MODERN LANGUAGES AND SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF 
NEBRASKA; AUTHOR OF ENGLISH AND SANSKRIT GRAMMARS, ETC. 


JOHN_S, PRELL 
Civil & Mechanical Engineer. 
SAN FRANCISCO, CAL, 


BOSTON, U.S.A. 
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 
1894 





Copyright, 1889, 
By A. HJALMAR EDGREN. 


TYPoGRAPHy By J. S. Cusnine & Co., Boston. 





PRINTED BY ROCKWELL AND CHURCHILL, 


4dary 
GIFT 


Fe 20h 


sug 
18ST 

EDUC. 

LIBRARY 


PREFACE. 


—_—_0>e———_- 


THIs grammar is prepared with special reference to the 
needs of our American schools and colleges. Its limit — for 
it purposely disavows all claims to completeness — is deter- 
mined by the average time devoted to French in such institu- 
tions; and its method, by practical as well as critical aims. 

To meet a twofold need, first, of an easy and rapid intro- 
duction to reading, secondly, of a critical exposition of both 
grammar and syntax, the book is divided into two parts, 
each forming by itself an independent whole. 

The First Part is intended to enable the learner to begin 
reading with profit at the earliest practicable moment, —or in 
from three to six weeks. It contains merely an elementary 
outline of the essentials of French pronunciation and accidence 
(some indispensable syntactical directions included), as well 
as accompanying exercises. The rules are purposely few, and 
as simple as has seemed compatible with accuracy of state- 
ment. Details and exceptions are left to the Second Part, 
where each of the subjects.contained here, as well as others, 
receives fuller and independent treatment. 

Though entirely elementary, this First Part is thought to 
contain sufficient material for its purpose. It may even be 
all that is needed where only a minimum of time can be given 
to grammar, or where scholars are too young to undertake a 
more earnest study of details. 

The Second Part is intended for a more critical study of the 
language after reading has begun. Here a methodical presen- 


708 


Iv _ PREFACE. 


tation of its grammar and syntax, each by itself, has been 
adopted, exercises being arranged separately at the end of the 
book, where they will not obstruct such a presentation, nor 
impede reference. In the framing of rules I have purposely 
tried to reconcile in each comparative fulness with conciseness, 
preferring one rule, unless too unwieldy, to several. Too much 
disintegration is apt to slacken the student’s grasp and pre- 
vent a clear comprehension of principles. On the same ground 
the leading features of such difficult topics as the Irregular 
Verbs and the Subjunctive are briefly outlined by themselves 
before details are given, lest the student be lost in the mazes 
of the latter. Moreover, I have attempted to distinguish by 
a difference in type what has seemed to me more or less 
necessary to commit to memory. Everything that may be left 
out in a first course is printed in small type, part of this — 
as especially the lists of indeclinables (164, etc.), of words or 
phrases requiring the subjunctive (324-30), of verbs requir- 
ing the infinitive with or without de or a (344, 347, 351) — 
being even intended for reference only. The syntactical 
rules are accompanied by copious examples, which the student 
is recommended to learn one and all, more genuine French 
being acquired in this way than by too early attempts at 
composition. 

A few explanatory remarks about some of the more direct 
innovations of this grammar may not here be out of place. 

The Irregular Verbs are first classified in a brief survey 
(155-60), where they should be studied in the order they are 
described. Then follow full conjugation tables in an alpha- 
betical list to serve as an aid in that study, and for rapid 
and immediate reference when later the student wishes to find a 
form without refreshing his recollection of the rules for making 
it. The index contains all the irregular verbs. 

For the Subjunctive I have attempted an entirely new classi- 
fication. That the use of this mode, yet involving in a large 


PREFACE. ¥ 


measure a psychological distinction due to the nature of the 
subjunctive clause, should be classified primarily with refer- 
ence to that distinction, and only secondarily with reference 
to certain preceding expressions causing the mental attitude 
expressed by the subjunctive, but not at all, or only inciden- 
tally, with reference to the syntactical nature of the clause 
where it occurs (as being subjective, objective, ete.), seems to 
me evident. I have consequently attempted such a classifica- 
tion. The brief synopsis of the use of the subjunctive, page 
188 (farther illustrated and explained on the following pages) 
contains all, I think, the student need commit to memory in 
order to have a good grasp of the nature of the French sub- 
junctive. That the simple method there adopted for explain- 
ing a mode so subtile and so affected by conventionalism in its 
use should be more than measurably complete and satisfactory 
is not expected; but it is hoped that it will be adapted to foster 
in the learner that feeling for the nature of the French sub- 
junctive which must be his safest guide in using it himself. 
For the purpose of giving to the student a useful as well as 
interesting glimpse of the historical growth of the French lan- 
guage, as also to prepare him for those syntactical peculiarities 
he will meet with in older authors, a brief sketch of the main 
features of the historical development of actual forms and con- 
structions has been included in Part II. That this extraneous 
matter may not, however, encumber the learner’s progress, 
each historical topic is presented, in the merest outline only, 
at the head of appropriate chapters (or sections), where it may 
be looked over, by those interested, as a suggestive introduc- 
tion to the actual laws of the language. It should be stated 
here that § 1, containing in nuce the outlines of French pho- 
netics according to recent theories, is intended not so much for 
immediate use as for forming later ‘a condensed synopsis of 
the subject, by the aid of which the teacher, expanding it as 
he may deem advisable, can explain to his class intelligently 


vi PREFACE. 


the derivation of French words. My own experience is that 
a small fraction of each hour judiciously devoted to such 
explanation, after the class is fairly started in’ reading, is apt 
to be both inspiring and productive of good results.’ 

To the grammar proper have been added a chapter on French 
Versification, and one on The Relation of Anglo-French and 
French words. This, I suppose, needs no plea. 

Among grammars referred to in the preparation of my own 
should be mentioned those of Matzner, Brunot, Clédat, Chas- 
sung, Cayer, Pleetz, Liicking, and Plattner. I am greatly in- 
debted to Professor Edward 8. Joynes for valuable comments 
on my MS. in its inchoate state, and for kindest aid and en- 
couragement during the farther progress of the work. Also 
to Professors Adolphe Cohn, C. Fontaine, Alcée Fortier, A. N. 
Van Daell, L. A. Sherman, and others my thanks are due for 
timely suggestions in the proofs or otherwise. 

If this grammar be deemed an effort in the right direction, 
_ and can contribute, in its humble way, towards promoting true 
educational interests, which should consider not only the how, 
but also the why, and aim at developing critical discernment 
rather than versatility, its ambition will be amply fulfilled. 

A. H. EDGREN. 


UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, 
May, 1890. 





1 To students wishing to pursue further the subject of historical French 
grammar may be especially recommended the excellent works of Brunot 
(Grammaire historique de la langue frangaise) and Clédat (Grammaire his- 
torique du frangais). The latter is the more elementary and destined no 
doubt to continue (with its companion-volume Grammaire élémentaire de la 
vieille langue francaise) the valuable services rendered the student of French 
by Brachet’s short grammar, now in several regards behind date. 


Remark. — The following general suggestions as to how to use this book 
may not be entirely out of place. Learn well Part I. (with or without the 
English exercises, according to taste and age). Then begin reading 
easy French (for instance Super’s Reader), referring for such verb-forms, 
as may not yet be understood to the reference-list, p. Lv111.; and study in 
connection with the reading, the irregular verbs, p. 79 etc., Part II., learn- 
ing them well one by one as they are there classed and described. When 
all the irregular verbs are mastered, learn the remainder of Part II. to 
syntax (with or without the fine print, according to taste and age); and 
then the syntax, dealing with the fine print and the exercises according to 
circumstances, These grammar-studies should all be subordinated to crit- 
ical and copious reading. 





CONTENTS. 


[ALL REFERENCES ARE TO PAGES. ] 


———1oe———— 


FIRST PART. 


IntTRODUCTORY SURVEY OF FRENCH GRAMMAR. 


Pronunciation . 

Article and Partitive Bic 
Nouns. 

Adjectives 

Numerals 

Pronouns. 

Verbs, Regular, xxxv; Teeealag 
Indeclinable 


SECOND PART. 


GRAMMAR AND SYNTAX. 


The French Language: History . 


I, ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENT. 


History , 
Notation of Soatais : : 
Alphabet, 7. — Subsidiary signs Peaconks, etc. ), 8. — _Syllabica- 
tion, 9. 
mceens and Quantity 96 ee i es 


3-5 


x CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
Pronunciation : 10-24 
Simple vowels, 10-12. < Moueenibenne 13. + pinneisogs 
and dissyllabics, 14-15.— Nasal vowels, 15-16.— Conso- 
nants (General rule, 16-17; Special rules, 17-23).— 
Proper nouns and foreign words, 23. 
Joining of Words 24-5 
II. Common CHANGES 26-7 
III. ArticLE AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 
History . ; 27 
Definite or facvin Article 27-8 
Indefinite Article i 28 
Partitive Sign 29-30 
IV. Nouns. 
History . 2 30-1 
Plural Formation pe NO rata corte 32-5 
Common nouns, 32.— Proper nouns, 34. — Compennd nouns, 
35. 
Gender . yet : ‘ : . . 80-8 
Masculines, 32. eateina 36. = Formal sslation hetireek 
kindred masculines and feminines, 38. 
V. ApJsEcTIVEs. 
History . 38-9 
Plural Formation : 39 
Formation of the Feminine . 40-2 
General rule, 40.— Etymological sheen 40-1. = Ortho: 
graphical changes, 41-2. Compound adjectives, 42. 
Comparison 43-4 
VI. NuMERALsS. 
Ne RES it UCI aE chee eg er? tie PT a isan gree s 44 
Cardinals . © bY ° . ° ° . . . . . 44-6 


CONTENTS. Xl 


PAGE 
RR al See oes eae ek we 46 
eR OCONEE ee ag a ee le ew | SORT 


VII. Pronouns. 
Ee ee ee Oe yt ee eh ag AIRS 
MR ORTIOD oes aol iy) ay aa ea ae Ss een 48 
WOPGONGL oe : sees fe OGA oe a gS eee 


List, 49. fa Pdouteal bitrtiales, 50. 2 Pemdon of conjunc- 
tive pronouns, 50-1.— Reflexive expression, 52-3. 


MR CO Peet Te Sg ee gp a ys. ae ta Or 
SELCEUER EOE Wg ig cg ge ewe) ve ip yet. a ee 
PERETTI 8 See le Fig yee mas Wy eee es OO 
WUT ei hie eke ee es ps WT eee ag a OE 
RR i he ee aw ca. al a teed RE OmOe 
VIII. Verss. 
PE ya oe Si a ee as eh ee ee 
TM MIIEO Spano a hee GU tts ed whe eo mip yl eee 
Regular Verbs... . Pia tee at ED 


aimer, finir, rompre, 65-7. _ Phonetic aid thor changes, 68-9. 
— Minor irregularities, 69.— Principal parts, 69-70. — 
Impersonal verbs, 70. —- Compound verb-forms, 70. — avoir, 
étre, 71-8.— Compound active tenses, 73-4. — Passive 
tenses, 74. — Reflexive verbs, 76-7. — Interrogative forms, 
78-9. — Negative forms, 79. — Negative -interrogative 
forms, 79. 
Irregular Verbs . . . . A Welriith! 6 pe ee ea 
General classification and SSR sg 79-83, _ Alphabetical 
reference-list, 83. 


IX. InDECLINABLE Worps. 


NM ete i ek, WE Cal «ee 105 

Adverbs. . ee Ne BAI 1 8 
Lists, 106-7. C Ganipiments 107. Neca. 107-8. 

PIN a Wo og nat sy eS hee ee tg te 108 

RM CSE hei ht heii oan a! okey Se 109 


MOGI yh ES igi a ear 2 ol 3% 109 


X11 CONTENTS. 


SYNTAX, 


PAGE 


A INTRODUCTORY: 600509 oO ODO 


XI. ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE Siren. 


16 Oss) ae ine a aes 111 
Use of the Dennis On Genera) Aeicle Trainees eres Fea b. 
Definite article [before common nouns, 112-14; before proper 
nouns, 114-16]. — Generic article, 117-18. 


Use of the Indefinite Article . . ...... 119 
Use of the Partitive Sign .. . feos 119-22 
Dependent partitive sign, 119-20. — Independent panlie, 
sign, 120-22. 

Repetition of Articles and Partitive Sign. . . . . 123 
Permpnion-oF Articles. 280. Sees Oe eee ee a 
XII. Nouns. 

MPSIOTY we Pr Ak Wea ae Sea ee Bees 125 
Nouns without pean h PE a clas Pere Ga be 
mouns With a, Preposition.. . .. sas ee AT 


With de, 128-30. — With a, 1380-1. — With dans, en, 131-2. — 
With other prepositions, 133. — Repetition of prepositions, 


133-4, 
XIII. Apsrcrives. 
Piimtory. -. ). Bia Fiat Se. ee ee ee ae 134 
Agreement of Aaisires ie geo a Seek eae eh gl he Re 
Place of Attributive Adjectives . . .... . . 187-40 
BON cg yi nos no ech ie nips Sew, awh a ae 


XIV. NuMERALS. 


a hake ose iS 8 gO nae! Je Saat 0 aR 145 
UNRATE Shh ee ig eee aa 


CONTENTS. Xill 


XV. PRoNovUNS. 


‘ PAGE 
UMN a ea ep ight k il ey od esp Moe tie a eins. SD 
Personals) .2.053.5 x : : 145 
Use of conjunctives isd aujancuver’ 145-50. ah tative eae 
tion, 147-9.—en and y, 149.— 1st and 2d persons, 151-2. 
—3d persons, 152-7 (il or ce with étre, 154).— Position, 
156-7. 
MMMNINOM ra coc eee Se ea gl Ya ae eos OD 
PIN OUBCIEELVOR art hier os ooutes He See IGS 69-68 
aR cite ink PCS ae We ye es 25 ae 
TRUCE ee yas hate yw Th ees eo ace oS 
TRIS, AO a SREP Ate Se a OO anes ERP aL CHAU AME 15 oy 5 
XVI. VERBs. 
EMOTE os Ra SSE RRS NC 174 
Agreement of Verb acd Suhiont ica. Sh CR coke * Rigi tek yk oe 
Indicative. . . ore gece Ga, Bt OD 


Simple present, 178-80. < Odinaouad ssscaats 180. ‘Saints 
and compound imperfect and preterit, 181-3.— Simple 
and compound future, 183.— Simple and compound con- 
ditional, 184-5. — Certain idiomatic uses, 184-5. 
Subjunctive ... + ein 4 A: 
History, 319. mubictins in piaibecdinats clauses [General 
principles, 186-7; Tabular statement, 188; Alphabetical 
reference-lists of words followed’by subjunctive, 193-5. — 
Infinitive for subjunctive, 195-6.— Special cases of sub- 
junctive use, 196-8. — Use of tense, 198-9].— Subjunctive 
in independent clauses, 200-1. 
Infinitive . .. . 201-10 
History, 201. a Fab Sahout sewmittid: 202-4, inf, with 
de, 204-6. — Inf. with a, 206-7. — Inf. alone or with de or 
a, 207-9. — Inf. with other prepositions, 209-10. — Inf. after 
nouns and adjectives, 210. 
Participles. . ... eo tia eae 
History, 211. Peni coats: e11-12 (with en, 212).— r 
Past participle, 212-15, 


7 


xiv CONTENTS. 


*. 


XVII. InNDECLINABLES. 
PAGE 


Negations . . . we ie 21626 
History, 216.— non pas, pas, 216-17. —ne pas, "217-18. —ne. 
alone, 218-20.—ne expletive, 220-3.— Other negations, 
223-5 (ni, 225). . 
Other Indeclinables . . . oak ee Spay S BIC ABO 
Adverbs, 226-8. — Contancticns® 228-30, 


XVIII. ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENTENCE. 


History. . . SER Cee OIE eae AIR, Mat ate ARSE | 
Direct Weranseniout A: A Seed ny gery RTE Chega ye, eS, alepr AMR‘-< «ESS 
dnvyeried Arrangement . 9.0 6. oe oe ine Ae BBR 

XIX. PuncTuATION AND CAPITALS . . 235-6 


XX. FrRENcH VERSE. 


RPIOPA) Came Let se rn ai on 
BPARAYNG 6 65 i. Per . 2388-42 
Number of ‘i thadlon ceesura, "288, —aFliatass 239, ser Blind, 
239-40. — Choice of words and constructions, 240. 


XXI. ReLAtTion or ANGLO-FRENCH AND FRENCH Worpbs. 


French Words in English ... . eo oe S  D2A2GB 
Difference in Form between Anglos Prenbh! and French 

ORR ess . 244-6 
Difference in dhesiine ietweey Anglo-French te 

French Words. . . Ld pada a elaaath ae 246 
Anglo-French Words loot. in Tien w heseea Ae tees 249 
Exercises to the Syntax .. . . 2. sw 1 ee 250-72 
TR OATI RE se a ata, GF hl, eee ee ee a ae 


RRM CO pc ite ote pee ri wi Sek aah gee Sia cr 


PART I. 


PRACTICAL SURVEY OF FRENCH GRAMMAR 


(CALCULATED FOR Hair a Term, or Luss) 


i? 


ry 
ws soa 
pt 





BRIEF INTRODUCTORY SURVEY 


OF 


FRENCH GRAMMAR. 


—_0te00—. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


[For fuller information the student is here, as elsewhere in this Survey, 
referred to Part II.] 


1. ALPHABET. — The French alphabet contains the same 
written letters as the English. 

Some of these letters, however, may have an orthographical 
sign attached to them. Thus, a vowel may have an Accent 
(acute ’, as in dé; grave ‘, as in dés; or circumflex %, 
as in mdt) to denote sound or origin; or the Dieresis (“", as in 
naif) to denote separation from a preceding vowel. And c may 
have the Cedilla (,, as in ga) to denote that it sounds like s 
before a, 0, u. 


Notre. — Name the letters as usually pronounced (5, 10), adding e 
‘mute’ to the consonants (6e, ce, etc.). Particulars in Part II, § 3. 


2. SYLLABICATION.— The general principle of syllabication 
is that a non-initial syllable should begin, if possible, with one 
consonant-sound [i.e. in writing, one consonant or a conso- 
nant-digraph (ch, ph, th, nasal gn)]; with two only if the last 
is a liquid (r, 7) preceded by one that is not a liquid. —Ex. 
fe-ra, par-lé, é-pe-lé, af-fec-té, symp-td-me ; a-che-ter, ga-gné ; 
— trem-blé, a-pres. ae 


II 3 FIRST PART. [2-5. 


Nore.—In writing, however, x (not being a simple consonant) goes 
with the preceding vowel (e.g. ex-il), and in pronunciation, silent / is left 
out of account (e.g. bo-nheur, written bon-heur). 


3. ACCENT-STRESS. — In French a slight prominence (ac- 
cent) is given to the last sonorous vowel of a single word, 
while preceding sonorous vowels are uttered with equal stress. 
— Ex. parlé, salade,* probabilité. 


By a sonorous vowel is meant any vowel, except e ‘mute’ (which, how- 
ever, counts as a syllable). 


4. VowELs. — The pronunciation of the vowels is given below. 
Their quantity may be long or short. The distinction, however, 
is often slight, and even uncertain; and only direct oral instruc- 
tion can teach the beginner the right quantity in every case. 
French vowels never have the ‘ vanish’ of English long vowels. 


5. Srmpite VoOwELs. 


a (4): 1. as in English ‘father’ (not quite so deep); — 2. 
midway between ‘father’ and ‘at.’— Ex. (1) pi grace ; 
— (2) ma, salade. 

e: 1. Closing a syllable (cf. § 2), e has a sound spavoaaliing 

that of e in ‘err’ (being uttered rapidly, with a narrower 

aperture of the lips: = Germ. 6) at the end of monosyllab- 
ics, and, usually, within polysyllabics (e.g. le, me-naf). It 
is silent, or practically so, in polysyllabics, as final or before 
final s; and it may be silent medially when no harsh sound 
arises (e.g. dme, dmes, ma-la-de; de-ve-nir).— 2. Not closing 

a syllable, it usually sounds like e in ‘ere’ (i.e. = Fr. 2); 

sometimes like e in ‘they’ (i.e. = Fr. é).— Ex. (= ) fer, 

bel-le; (= é) nez, parler. 

: almost like e in ‘they,’ but usually short, except before e 

mute: — (long) donnée; (short) donné, blé. 


®. 





* Letters here printed in Roman type are mute (as described later). 
+ Hyphens here used simply to divide syllables. 


5, 6.] PRONUNCIATION. III 


é, 6: 1. long as e in ‘ere’ (or et in ‘heir’); or 2. short as e in 
‘let’: — (1) pére, fete ; — (2) breve, féter. 

i @, y: as i in ‘police,’ but long or short : — (long) lie, ile, 
hydre; (short) ni, inutile. 

o (6): close as in ‘no,’ or more open, approaching o in ‘not’: 
— (close) rose, pdle; (open) sotte, folle. 

u (#2): to produce the sound of this vowel (which is = Germ. %), 
prepare to utter wu as in Engl. ‘rue,’ and then try, instead, to 
pronounce Fr. 7 without moving the lips. It is long or short : 
— (long) rue, mir; — (short) du, butte. 


EXeERcIsE I.—a: (1) car, mat, fable, table, bas, grace, dne, 
dme; (2) a, ma, ta, papa, salade, assez.—e: (1) le, me, ve-nir, 
bre-bis, re-ce-vra; dme, dmes, base, malade, re-le-va; (2: = é) 
es, des, fer, ver-re, bel-le, met-tre, despote, promets ; (= é) nez, 
assez, parlez, parler, des-servir, ef-ficace ;— é (long) donnée, 
parlée ; (short) donné, parlé, dé, blé, été, révéré, créé. —@, 6 
(long) pére, mere, fete, béte, etre, fe-nétre, pese ; (shorter) breve, 
modele, niece. —/ (1), y: (long) lie, amie, dise, ile, abime, hydre ; 
(short) ni, fini, bdti, inutile, arrive. —o, 6: (as in ‘no’) rose, 
suppose, pole, ddme, réder; (more open) sotte, obéir, procéde, 
folle. — u (&): (long) rue, vue, ruse, mar, flate, déluge ; (short) 
du, tu, butte, futur, férule, minute. 


6. MonoPHTHONGS (combined vowels uttered as one). 
aj (ai), ef (et): like 2; but final at of verbs like é:— (long) 
baise, maitre ; (short) reine ; — (= é) parlat. 
au, eau: like Fr. 0:—(as in ‘no’) pause; (more open) Paul. 


eu (ed), wu: 1. closer than e in ‘err’; or 2. open, almost 
like e in ‘err’: — (close and long) creuse, veux, veux ;— 
(open and short), seul, veule; longer, leur, ceur (c = k). 


ou (ot, ow): like oo in ‘fool,’ but long or short : — (long) gout; 
rove; (shorter) doute, ow. 


IV FIRST PART. [6-9. 


Exercise II.—a/, e/: (= é long) baise, raie, maitre, nattre, 
grasseie; (= @ short) aime, aimer, fait, parfaite, pleine, peiner ; 
(like é) ai, parlat. —au, eau: (close) pause, pauvre, beau, 
beaucoup, fuseau; (open) Paul, restawre. — eu, oeu: (close) 
creuse, deux, veux, neutre, veux, beufs; (open) seul, jeune, 
leur, boeuf.—ou: (long) godt, épouse, roue, bravoure; (short) 
ou, ow, loup, couteau, foule, route. 


7. DIrHTHoONGs. 


In other vowel-combinations than those described above, each 
element usually has its own sound, though the first is apt to be 
only slightly pronounced. The chief exceptions are : — 
of: nearly like wa- in ‘waft’: — (1) poivre, joie ; — (2 shorter) 

mot, rot. 

u + vowel (or vowel-combination) : If preceded by gor q, u is 
in most cases but a silent graphic sign to denote that g and 
gq sound like hard g (in ‘ go’) and k respectively (i.e. gua, 
gué = ga, gé as in ‘get’; qua, gue = ka, ke; etc.) : — Ex. 
fatigua, fatiqué, fatigue ( fa-tig) ; pratiqua, pratique. 
Exercise II].—o/: (1) boite, poivre, voir, avoir; (2) mot, 

voit, voiture, tournoi. — gua, gue, etc.: fatigua, fatigue, pra- 

tiqua, quatre, guére, que-relle, gué, que, guide, qui, langue, plaque, 
bague. — Other combinations (first vowel slightly dimmed): 
piece (= p'-es), lui, cruel, Dieu, béat, lia, riez, lieu, diable. 


8. y between vowels is equivalent to French t-y, of which 
? combines with its preceding vowel. Hence payer = pai-yer 
(ai as é), royal = rof-yal (ot as wa- in ‘ wag’), But pays 
‘country’ = pai-i. 


9. NASAL VowELs.— A single vowel or monophthong fol- 
lowed in the same syllable by one nasal (n, m) is nasalized 
(very nearly as a in Engl. ‘thank’ is nasalized by n), n, m 
losing entirely their independent utterance. 


9, 10.) PRONUNCIATION. Vv 


The French nasal vowels have no exact English equivalents. 
Denoting their nasality (which is one with them) by the sign 
~, their sound may be represented in French as follows: 


an, am =4(aasin‘far’). Ex. an, ruban, ambre. 

on, om =6(closeo). — ‘son, mouton, ombre. 

ain, al. aes main, poulain, faim. 
ins alt \ di (ai as 2 2). «f My pon Jt 

ein, eim frein, peindre, Reims. 


eun = eu (eu 2). $s Jenn. 


But, besides this nasalization, e (except chiefly in final -ien), 
i (y), and uw, unless they are the finals of a monophthong (6), 
receive the value of French a, a/, and eu respectively. Hence: 


en, em =a. Ex. en, empereur. 
in, 1 ~ 

noe ; = di. ‘¢ vin, nymphe. 
yn, ym 
un, um =u. ss un, humble. 


EXERCISE IV.—y: payer, essayer, noyer, foyer, royal, ap- 
puyer, envoyer. — nasal vowels: an, volcan, quand, banquet, 
lampe, ample; en, vent, pente, enfant, temps, empereur, orient, 
patience ; bien, tien; vin, cousin, pincer, timbre, simple, nymphe, 
point (= po-in), joint, moins; vain, essaim, sainte, craindre ; 
on, lion, ombre, tomber ; un, lundi, tribun, emprunter, humble, 
parfum, jedn ; — (but without nasalization) d-ne, année, ve-nu, 
ennemi, u-ne, cousi-ne, ho-norer, vai-ne, bonne, homme, etc. 


10. CONSONANTS. — The French consonants are usually 
pronounced as in English, except in the following cases : — 


a. InitrAt oR MEDIAL. 


e sounds like s- ga, fagon. 


ch sounds like sh or k (as k before r, J, ad usually in such 
foreign words as are also in English pronounced with a k 
sound): cher, vache; (=k) Christ, chaos. 


VI FIRST PART. £10. 


g (before e, i, y 

j (always) 

his virtually silent. But for grammatical reasons (12, note 
etc.) a distinction is made between h ‘mute’ and h ‘aspi- 
rated’ (once slightly enounced in foreign, chiefly Germanic, 
words) : — (‘mute’) habit, hewre; (‘asp.’) héros, harpe. 


sounds like z in ‘azure’: geste, joli, jambe. 


s sounds as in ‘so,’ except between vowel-sounds (and in trans 
+ vowel, and a few other combinations), where it sounds as 
in ‘rose’: son, astre; (= 2) rose, base, transitif. 

-gn- sounds nearly as ny in ‘canyon’: gagna (nearly = ga”ya). 

il, final and preceded by a vowel, sounds like y in ‘boy’ 
bétail (= bé-ta’y), vieil (= vi-e’y). 

-i//-, medial, usually sounds like 7’y; but after a vowel simply 
like y: briller (= bri-yé), travailler (= tra-va-yé). 

Nore. —-l, -/l- may also be sounded like ili in ‘ million’; but this 
pronunciation, though preferred by good authorities, is less common: 

-ti before a vowel sounds like s‘ [except after s (or a), in -tié, 
the verb-ending -tions, and (often) -tien]: e.g. (= 8‘) nation 
= nas‘d, partial, prophétie, factieux; (= t') sions moitié, 
partions (verb-form). 

b. FINAL. 


Final consonants are usually silent. Only e, f,/,q, and r 
(except in polysyllabics in -er, -der) are for the most part 
sounded. Nasals, of course, nasalize a preceding vowel. — Ex. 
chat, aimer, ses ; — sec (c = k), chef, il, fer, cing, on. 

Notre. — Even / is often silent (as in baril, outil, fusil, etc.); and -d 
preceded by a vowel sounds like y (travail = tra-va'y: cf. -i/, above). 


EXERCISE V.— ¢@: ¢a, regu, gargon. — ch: chat, chaleur, 
cher, vache, cochon, chuchoter.—g,j: géle, gilet, gypse, germe, 
rouge, orageux, mangea (e only to soften g), George; jardins, 
jour, juge, je, jeune, joie, jamais; (but g as in ‘ go’) gant, 


10, 11.] PRONUNCIATION. vil 


godter, grand, etc. —hA: habit, heure, homme, heureux ; héros, 
harpe, hasard, haut, halte.—s: sa, son, estime; (= 2) rose, 
raser, raison, déshonorer, transaction. — gn: gagna, gagner, 
gagne, agneau, régna, régner, regne, ligne, ignorant, cygne, bai- 
gner, seigneur, rognon. —-i/, -ill-: bétail, vieil; briller, brillant, 
brille, fille, gentille, sillon, travailler, travailleur, guillotine (gu 
simply = hard q: gi-yo-tin), conseiller, vieillir, feuille, feuillage, 
houille, cueillir (cue = ke: ke-yir); (but = ill in. Engl.) dlustre, 
: illuminer, etc. — ti: nation, section, patient, partial, égyptien, 
plénipotentiaire, prophétie, minutie, inertie, démocratie; (= t') 
chrétien, question, miaxtion, moitié. — Finals: plomb, pied, trop, 
les, draps, vingt, vends ; sec, avec, choc, chef, vif, il, fol, nul, 
fatal; travail (= tra-va’y), conseil, vieil, seuil, wil (= eu’y), 
accueil (= a-kew’y); fer, mer, fier, hier, leur, honneur, hauteur ; 
parler, aimer, entier, premier. 

Exceptions to the rules of pronunciation given above will be noticed as 
they occur hereafter. 


11. LINKING OF WorRDs.—JIn connected reading or dis- 
course, words closely combined in construction are apt 
to be joined in such a way that the end-consonant of the pre- 
ceding word, even when otherwise silent, is pronounced with 
the initial syllable of the next word, if beginning with a vowel- 
sound (vowel or h‘mute’). Final ¢, d, g, s (~) then sound as 
follows: c=k, d=#, g=k, s (x) =z.— Ex.: 

les amis les hommes nous avons VOUS AVEZ 
(le-2” ami) (lé-2-omm) (nou-Z-avd) (vou-2avé) 
‘the friends’ ‘themen’ ‘wehave’ ‘you have’ 

grand homme rang élevé _—_ sia heures mon ami 
(gra-t-omm) (ra-kélevé) (si-eeur)  (md-n- ami) 
‘great man’ ‘high rank’ ‘six hours’ ‘my friend’ 


Vil FIRST PART. (12-14. 


t ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 


12. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE is: singular masc. /e, fem. /a; 
plural masce. or fem. /es (pronounce /2): ‘ the.’ 

Nore. — Before a vowel or h ‘mute,’ le and la both, by eli- 
sion (‘striking out’) of their final vowel, become /’. — E.g. 
Pami (m.) ‘the friend,’ V’dme (f.) ‘the soul,’ Vhomme ‘the 
man.’ 


13. French, unlike English, requires the definite article 
before nouns used in an absolute or generic sense (so that 
‘all, ‘generally,’ etc., may be understood). It may then be 
called the Generic Article. Thus le fer may mean ‘the iron’ 
or ‘iron’ (generally); les hommes ‘the men’ or ‘men’ (gener- 


ally). 


14. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE is: sing. masc. un, fem. 
une: ‘an, a.’ 


Nore. — French has no neuter gender. 


EXERCISE V (a, D). 


wa To facilitate the recollection of gender, masculine and feminine 
nouns are in the vocabularies to the following exercises arranged in oppo- 
site columns. 

Of French nouns not implying a natural distinction of sex, those in -e, 
-té, -tié, -x, -eur, -ton, -son are usually fem.; but there are many exceptions. 


Masc. Fem. 
le pere ‘the father’ . . . la mére ‘the mother’ 
le fils (ls = ss) ‘the son’. . Ja fille ‘the daughter, girl’ 
le frere ‘the brother’ . . . da seur ‘the sister’ 
unami‘afriend’ . . . . wne amie ‘a friend’ 


un homme (h mute) ‘a man,’ wne femme (pr. fa-m) ‘a woman, 
wife ’ 


14-17.] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. Ix 


Masc. Fem. 
lero. the king’ . ..... . . .—.. tareine ‘the queen’ 
le palais ‘the palace’ . . . . . . la maison ‘the house’ 


jai (for je ‘I,’ at ‘ have’), ‘I have’ 
et (pr. €; and ¢ never linked) ‘ and’ 


® 
a.—1. Le* pere et la mere. 2. Les péres et les meres. 
3. Lami; Pamie; Phomme; les-amis; les-amies. 4. J’ai un 
frere et une seur. 5. J’ai un-ami; jai une amie. 6. J’ai 


un fils et une fille; fai un palais et une maison. 7. Le rot et 
la reine? \) » 


Pav? ce, r f 


final 


y, 0. Frees The brother and the sister. 2. The man sat the 
woman. 3. The friend (m.); the friend (f). 4. The brothers 
and the sisters (French nouns, like English, add s in the ee) 
5. J have a palace ; I have a house. f'. Ad far on a 

. { 
ve soon [ et ‘of (from)? a“ to a 


15. CONTRACTION. — The prepositions de‘ of,’ and a ‘to,’ 
blend with a following le or les (never with Ja or /’) into one 
form, viz. : — 

dele into du. Ex. du pére ‘of the father.’ 
deles “ des. “ des péres (méres) ‘of the fathers 
(mothers).’ 
i. eee |e “ au pere ‘to the father.’ 
les “ aux. “ aux peres (méres) ‘to the fathers 
(mothers).’ 
But: dela mére ‘of the mother,’ de ’ami ‘ of the friend.’ 


RR 


16. De before a vowel or h ‘mute’ is a’. — Ex. dun. 


17. French nouns have no different case-forms, not even a 
possessive, like English. Hence the English possessive must 





* Items in heavy type to be carefully noted and explained by the student, 


not to be emphasized in reading. The stress is usually on the last word 
of a clause. 


x FIRST PART. rs. 


in French be expressed like all other oblique relations, by the 
aid of a preposition (de). — Ex. du (= de le) pére ‘the father’s’ 
(or ‘of the father’), de /a mére ‘the mother’s’ (or ‘of the 
mother’); du sel ‘of the salt,’ des pommes ‘ of the apples.’ 


18. INDEPENDENT PARTITIVE SIGN.—JDe with le, la, les 
eae not only ‘of the,’ but is used also before nouns inde- 
pendently of any preceding word to denote the partitive idea 
‘some (any),’ whether expressed or not in English. Thus du 
(= de le) pain may mean either ‘of the bread’ or ‘ (some) bread,’ 
‘(any) bread,’ according as it is used; de /a farine,‘of the 
flour,’ ‘(some) flour,’ ‘(a@my) flour’; des jils ‘of the sons,’ 
‘(some) sons,’ ‘(any) sons’; du sel ‘salt’; des pommes (f.) 
‘apples.’ 
In its independent partitive use, du (etc.) is usually called the 
Partitive Article. 


Exercise VI (a, b). 


Masc. Fem. 
le blé ‘(the) wheat, grain’ . . . . la farine ‘(the) flour’ 
le pain ‘(the) bread’. . . . . . la soupe ‘(the) soup’ 
le beurre ‘(the) butter’ . . . . . la viande ‘(the) meat’ 
le lait ‘(the) milk’ . ... . . Peau ‘(the) water’ 
le papier ‘(the) paper’ . . . . . la plume ‘the pen’ 
le‘ceur ‘the heart’ . . . . . . Padme *the soul” 
letoit‘the roof’ ... . . . . la fenétre ‘the window’ 


mon (f. ma, or, before vowel-sound, mon); pl., m. f., mes ‘my ’” 

son (f. sa or, as above, son); pl. ses ‘his, her, its’ 

vous avez ‘you have’; avez-vous ? ‘have you?’ 

il est (pronounce é) ‘he (it) is’ 

je parle ‘1 speak’ 

je donne ‘I give’ 

que (ace.) ‘whom, which’ 

Norn, — De and a must be expressed before every noun they respec- 
tively govern. 


18-20. ] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. XI 


a.—1. Le ceur du pere (but de Phomme); le ceur de la 
mere; Vame des hommes. 2. Le blé de mon pere. 3. Le toit” 
et les fenétres de la maison. 4. Je parle du pain, de la viande 
et des pommes que vous avez. 5. J’ai du pain, de la viande et 
des pommes. 6. Avez-vous du (‘some’ or ‘any’) pain? Avez- 
vous de la viande? 7. Avez-vous des fréeres et des scours? 
8. Vous avez de Peau et du pain. 9. Je parle au pére, a la 
seeur et a Phomme. 10. Je parle aux hommes. 11. Je donne de 
la viande a lami de mon frere. 12. Je donne du papier et 
des plumes a& ma sour. J Je parle d’un ami (de son ami). 


b.—1. The son’ S ese ‘the man’s heart, the heart of man, 
man’s heart, the heart of the man, ig last four expressions are 
identical in French). 2. The girl’s“pen. 3. The roofs of the 
houses. 4. I speak of the butter, the Sop (cf. note above), 
and the water. 5. I speak of my brother's apples. 6. You 
have bread, soup, and apples (18). 7. Have you paper and 
pens? 8. I give salt and bread to the girl’s fpiher: 9. I give 
meat to the girl’s mother, and tothe men. = 


19. De is used alone as independent partitive sign : 


a. When its noun is preceded by an adjective. —Ex. J’ai 
de bon pain ‘I have (some) good bread,’ 


b. When its noun is the unmodified accusative object of a 
negative verb. — Ex. Je n’at pas de pain ‘I have not any (no) 
bread’; but Cela n’est pas du pain ‘This is not bread.’ 


20. DEPENDENT PARTITIVE SIGN. —JDe also represents the 
English preposition ‘of’ required by a preceding word spoken 
of as a part of something (e.g. ‘a piece”of bread’). It is then 
used alone or with the article precisely as in English. But it 
is to be observed that French, contrary to English usage, re- 
quires this partitive preposition also after adverbs of quantity 
(beaucoup ‘much,’ plus ‘more,’ moins ‘less,’ etc.).— Ex. Un 


XII FIRST PART. £20. 
morceau de pain ‘a piece of bread;’ un morceau du pain que 


vous avez ‘a piece of the bread you have;’ beaucoup de pain 
‘much bread ;’ plus de pain ‘more bread.’ 


Exercise VII (a, 0). 


Mase. Fem. 
te ore ‘the book” 5s . wk eS de carte *the map” 
le morceau ‘the piece, morsel’ . . . . la piéce ‘the piece’ 
Bon “oad eS Se ee ct Pe Sh oe ee 
mor *binek? =. os Re es aoe ek 


beaucoup (de) ‘much, many’ 

peu (de) ‘little, few ’ adverbs of 

trop (de) ‘too much, too many’ { quantity 

assez (de) ‘enough’ 

je n'ai pas ‘I have not’ [‘not’ ne (bef. vowel or 
h ‘mute’ n’) . . . pas, on either side of the personal verb] 


Nore. — Adjectives are expressed before every noun they qualify. 


a.—1. J’ai du pain et de la viande. 2. J’ai de bon pain et 
de bonne viande. 3. J’ai du pain noir (adjectives frequently 
follow their nouns, as explained Exc. X, note 2). 4. Je nai 
pas de pain. 5. Avez-vous de bonnes plumes? 6. Je parle des 
bons fréres et des bonnes seurs; je parle de bons fréeres et de 
bonnes seurs. 7. Je donne de bonne eau a la seur du bon 
homme. 8. Je nai pas de viande. 9. Vous n’avez pas de 
livres. 10. J’ai de Peau; vous n’avez pas d’eau. 11. Vous 
avez beaucoup de pain et de viande. 12. J’ati peu de livres. 
13. Je n’ai pas assez de plumes. 14. Je donne trop de pain et 
de viande a la seur. 


b.—1. You have bread and soup. 2. You have good bread 
and soup (‘good’ repeated before ‘soup’). 3. I give some 
black bread (cf. 3 above) to my son. 4. Have you any good 
pens? 5. I have not any pens (or I have no pens: —the same 
in French). 6. I have some good bread and some water. 7. I 


20-23. ] NOUNS. XII 


give much bread and many apples to the good man (or I give 
the good man, etc.). 8. Have youtoo many books? 9. I have 


not books enough. 10. I have little paper and few pens. 
a a 


‘ NOUNS. 


x 21. PLURAL.— French nouns usually form their plural by 
adding (silent) s to the singular form. — Ex. le pére, pl. les péres. 
Exceptions : — 


[22.] Nouns ending in s, 2, or z are unchanged in the plural. 
— Ex. le fils, pl. les fils; le prix: les prix; le nez: les nez. 


[23.] Nouns in -aw, -ew, and a few in -ou, add x, instead of 
s; and most of those in -al (as well as many in -ail) change 
that ending to aw and then add x.— Ex. chapeau ‘hat,’ pl. 
chapeaux; feu ‘fire, pl. feux; cheval ‘horse,’ pl. chevaux; 
corail ‘coral,’ pl. coraux. 


Exercise VIII (a, b). 


Mase. 
le cousin (pl. -s) ‘the cousin ’ 
le chien (pl. -s) ‘the dog’ 
le fils (pl. —) ‘the son’ 


le nez (pl. —) ‘the nose’ 

le chapeau (pl. -«) ‘the hat’ 

le neveu (pl. -w) ‘the nephew’ 

le cheval (pl. chevaux) ‘the 
horse’ 

le atibial (pl. géndrans) ‘the 
general’ . 

le corail (pl. 
coral’ . 


craasy : the 


Fem. 
la cousine (pl. -s) ‘the cousin ’ 
la chienne (pl. -s) ‘the bitch’ 
la fille (pl. -s) ‘the daughter, 
girl’ 

la voix (pl. —) ‘the voice’ 

la peau (pl. peaux) ‘the skin’ 
la niéce (pl. -s) ‘the niece’ 


la jument (pl. -s) ‘the mare’ 
une armée (pl. -s) ‘an army’ 


la mer (pl. -s) ‘the sea,’ 


XIV 3 FIRST PART. [23-25. 


il (elle) a ‘he (she) has’; a-t-il “has he?’ 
il n’a pas ‘he has not’ 

tls ont ‘they have’ 

ils n’ont pas ‘they have not’ 

mais ‘but’; enfant, m., ‘child’ 


a.—1. Il a des fréres et des sceur's, des cousins et des cousines. 
2. Il a beaucoup de fils, mais il n’a pas de filles. 3. Beaucoup 
de voix. 4. Mes cousins n’ont pas de chapeaux. 5. Les géné- 
raux ont des chiens et des chevaux. 6. Les coraux de la mer. 
7. Mon général a beaucoup de neveux. A-t-il des enfants ? 


b.—1. Have you brothers and sisters? 2. Has he any sons? 
3. I give the hats to my sister. 4. He has few nephews, but 
many nieces. 5. I give the corals to my sister. 6. The gen- 
erals have good horses. 7. The voices of the sea. 8. The 
general has many palaces. 


ADDITIONAL RULES FOR THE PLURAL. 


_ [24] A few nouns in -a/ (bal ‘ball,’ carnaval ‘carnival,’ 
etc.), and about half of those in -a// (détail ‘detail,’ portail 
‘doorway,’ etc.), simply add s in the plural. 


[25.] aveu/ (ai = a-i), m., ‘ancestor,’ is in pl. aveux 
ciel, m., ‘sky, heaven,’ is in pl. efeux 
@i/ (pr. eu’y), m., ‘eye,’ is in pl. yeux (pr. ‘ew) 
Nore. — These three words have also, in some special and less common 


significations, a regular plural form (aieu/s ‘ grandparents,’ cie/s ‘ artificial 
skies,’ eils in some compounds). 


Exercise IX (a, 5). 


Masc. Fem. 
le bijou (pl. -v) ‘the jewel’ . . . . . la perle ‘the pearl’ 
le boeuf (pl. beufs, fs mute), ‘the ox’. , la vache ‘the cow’ 


25, 26.] ADJECTIVES. XV 


Masc. Fem. 
le mouton ‘the sheep’ (generic term), la brebis ‘the ewe, sheep’ 
un animal (pl. animaux) ‘an animal’ une béte ‘a beast’? 
le village (Wi as in Engl.) ‘the village’ da ville (UW as in Engl.) 


‘the city’ 
francais (pl. —) ‘French’ (adj.) . jfrangaise ‘French’ (adj.) 
le Francais ‘the Frenchman’ . . la Francaise ‘the French 
woman’ ~ 


ily a ‘there is’ or ‘there are’; y a-t-il ‘is (are) there? , 
il est ‘he (or it) is,’ ils sont, ee are’ 

utile ‘useful’; jeune ‘young’ 

dans ‘in’; souvent ‘often’ 


Norr. — The partitive article (du etc.) is omitted after de. 


a.—1. Il y a des bals et des carnavals dans la ville. 2. Les 
détails sont bons. 3. Vous avez peu de coraux, mais beaucoup 
de bijoux et de perles. 4. Le ciel est noir; les cieux sont noirs. 
5. Les yeux des Francaises sont souvent noirs. 6. Mon aieul; 
les aieux des Francais. T. Le beuf, la vache et la brebis sont 
des animaux utiles. 8. Il parle de (des omitted) brebdis. 


b. —1. I speak of balls; I speak of the balls. 2. I give 
some jewels to my sister. 3. There are many Frenchmen in 
the city. 4. My ancestors; my cousin’s ancestors; the ances- 
tors of the French. 5. My nephew’s eyes are dark (= black). 
6. The sky; the skies; to the heavens. 7. There is a jewel 
(there are jewels) inmy house. 8. Are there corals in the sea? 


ADJECTIVES. 


26. FEMININE. — All adjectives not terminating in -e have 
a special feminine form, made by adding e to the masculine 
form. — Ex. grand ‘great,’ f. grande; joli ‘pretty,’ f. jolie ; 
but sage ‘wise,’ f. sage ; jewne ‘young,’ f. jeune, 


XVI FIRST PART. | [27-34. 
27. In adding e some changes may occur. Thus: — 
[28.] Final f becomes v. — Ex. vif ‘lively,’ f. vive. 


[29.] When the penultimate letter of the masculine form is 
e, the openness of this vowel-sound is in the feminine form 
denoted either by its change to @, or (often) by the doubling 
of a final /, n, or ¢. — Ex. cher ‘dear’: chére; cruel ‘cruel’: 
cruelle ; net ‘neat’: nette. 


[30.] Final /, n, ¢ of adjectives in etl, on, ot, and final s of 
monosyllabics, and a few polysyllabics (as épais ‘ thick,’ etc.), 
are also doubled. — Ex. bon ‘good’: bonne; pareil ‘similar’: 
pareille; gros ‘big’: grosse. 


[31.] Beau ‘beautiful,’ nouveau ‘new,’ fou ‘foolish, mou 
‘soft,’ vieux ‘old,’ are before a vowel-sound 6e/, nouvel, fol, 
mol, vieil (the last optionally);. and their feminines are invari- 
ably made from the latter form by doubling 7 before e (6e/e, 
nouvelle, folle, molle, viei/le), both in singular and plural. 


[32.]°Final c, g, and # are before e usually written qu, 
gu, s. — Ex. public: publigue; long ‘long’: longue; jaloux: 
jalouse. 


[33.] Among exceptions to the above rules may be noticed 
here: frais ‘fresh, f. fraiehe; blanc ‘white,’ f. blanehe; sec 
‘dry,’ f. seehe; grec ‘Grecian,’ f. greeque; faua ‘false,’ f. 
fausse; doux ‘sweet,’ f. dowee; roux ‘red,’ f. rousse. 


34. PLURAL. — Adjectives usually form their plural (for 
the masculine and feminine forms respectively) like nouns 
with corresponding finals (cf. 21, etc.).— Ex. bon (f. bonne) 
‘good,’ pl. bons (bonnes) ; beau (f. belle) ‘beautiful,’ pl. beaux 
(belles); nouveau, pl. -x, fou, pl. -s, mou, pl. -s, vieua, pl. same. 


‘\ 


34.] ADJECTIVES. XVII 


EXERCISE X (a, B). [fine? 
grand (f. -e) ‘great, tall’ beau (f. belle) ‘ beautiful, 
petit (f. -e) ‘little, small’ vieux (f. vieille) ‘old, aged ’ 
+ joli (f. -e) ‘pretty ’ i public (£. publique) ‘public’ 
utile (f. —) ‘useful’ heureuax (f.heureuse) ‘happy ’ 





‘aimable (f.—) ‘lovely, agree- ; grec (f. greeque) ‘Grecian’ 


able’ Srais (£. fraiche) ‘fresh ’ 
actif (f. active) ‘active’ blanc (f. blanche) ‘ white’ 

( cher (chére) ‘ dear’ Saux (f. fausse) ‘false ’ 
secret (secrete) ‘secret’ dousx (f. douce) ‘sweet’ 
eruel (f. cruelle) ‘cruel’ trés ‘very,’ aussi ‘also,’ ou ‘or 

< muet (f. muette) ‘mute’ le gargon ‘the boy’ 
ancien (f. ancienne) ‘ancient, Je voisin ‘the neighbor’ 

old’ le monde ‘the world’ 
bon (£. bonne) ‘ good ’ la laine ‘the wool’ 





Notre 1.— Adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they 
qualify, whether as attributes or predicate complements. — Ex. le bon pére ; 
la bonne mére; les bons péres ; ma mére est bonne. 

Nore 2.— An adjective may precede or follow its noun. Only 
some fifteen common adjectives (beau, joli; bon, mauvais; grand, petit, 
jeune, vieux, etc.) usually precede the noun in their ordinary sense. 
Others usually follow when they denote a distinguishing quality (such 
as nationality, color, form, etc.), serving to separate the object spoken 
of from other objects of the same kind (e.g. la rose blanche ‘the white 
rose’), and always when they are past participles. Often, however, 
euphony decides the place of the adjective. 


a.—1. Le grand gargon et la grande fille. 2. Je parle aux 
jeunes filles. 3. Mon frere est actif et ma seeur est aussi trés 
active. 4. Les filles de ma bonne cousine sont tres aimables. 
5. La brebis a la laine tres douce. 6. Mon chérpére et ma 
chére mére. 7. Il y a beaucoup de belles maisons dans lan- 
cienne ville de N. 8. Il a un beau chien et une belle brebis, de 
beaux chevaux et de belles vaches. 9. Ma mére est trés bonne 
et elle est aussi tres hewreuse. 10, Avez-vous du lait frais, ou 

Oe 


ag, 
a 


XVIII FIRST PART. [34-36. 


de Veau fraiche? 11. J’ai deleau fraiche, et jai aussi du lait 
frais. 12. Il est faux, et elle est fausse. 13. La maison de 
mon ami est blanche. 14. Son voisin est un homme du monde. 


b. —1. My little son and my little daughters. 2. I give 
some good bread to my‘Sister’s good daughter. 3. An active 
man and a very active woman. 4. My dear friend’s pretty 
little sister is mute. 5. A beautiful man and a beautiful 
woman; beautiful men and beautiful women (partitive). 6. 
There are many good men and (good, adj. repeated) women 
in the old village of N. 7. He is a very cruel father, and she 
(elle) is a cruel mother. 8. My niece has a very sweet voice. 
9. I give fresh milk and fresh water to my little girl. 10. The 
happy man and the happy woman. 11. I have not any white 
horses. 12. Have you any white pearls? 13. I have a beau- 
tiful new house. 


35. COMPARISON. — Plus means ‘ more,’ or, if preceded by 
the definite article or a possessive pronoun, ‘most’; and moins 
means, in the same way, ‘less’ or ‘least.’ — Ex. grand ‘ great’: 
plus grand (‘more great’ =) ‘greater,’ le plus grand ‘the great- 
est’; mon plus grand, ‘my greatest.’ 


36. Only three adjectives form their comparative and super- 
lative without plus (or moins). They are : — 


Pos. . Comp. Sup. 
bon ‘good’: meilleur ‘better, le meilleur ‘the best’ 
mauvais ‘bad’: — pire ‘ worse,’ "le pire ‘the worst’ 
petit ‘little’: moindre ‘less,’ le moindre ‘the least’ 


Nore. — If petit means ‘small’ (in size), its comp. and superl. are plus 
petit, le plus petit. Even mauvais may be regularly compared. 


; f 


36.] ADJECTIVES. XIX 


i on 
EXERCISE XI (a, 5). 
Masc. . Fem. 

un arbre ‘atree’ . . . . . . la fleur ‘the flower’ 
le tronc (c mute) ‘the mes 7. . . la feuille ‘the leaf’ 
le chéne‘the oak’. . - ... » Paubépine ‘the hawthorn’ 
le lis (s heard) ‘the lily’ - . . . la rose ‘the rose’ 
lesapin ‘the fir’? . . . . . . . Uépine ‘the thorn’ 
lelierre‘theivy’ . . ... . . . lavigne ‘the vine’ 
un orme ‘an elm’ la France ‘ France’ 
le métal ‘(the) metal ’ v Angleterre ‘ England’ 
Vor ‘(the) gold’ P Amérique ‘ America’ 
Pargent ‘the silver, money ’ ? Allemagne ‘ Germany ’ 
le fer ‘ (the) iron’ la Suede ‘Sweden’ 
le Rhin‘the Rhine’. . . la Seine ‘the Seine ’ 


aussi... que ‘as (or so)... as’; si (aft. negat.)...que‘so...as’ 


plus... que ‘more... than’ 
ce (or, before vowel or h ‘mute,’ cet) ‘this’: f. cette 
ces (pron’ce cé) ‘these’ (m. or f.); précieux ‘ precious’ 
ils sont ‘they are’; ils ne sont pas ‘they are not’ 
il demeure ‘he dwells or lives’; en ‘in’ (a country) 
Nore 1.— Most names of trees or shrubs (some in -e excepted) and 
metals are masc. Most names of countries and rivers in -e are fem. 


Nore 2.— Before names of countries and rivers the definite article 
is used, except always after en ‘in,’ and often after de ‘ of, from.’ 


a.—1. Mon frére est plus grand que ma seur. 2. Le chéne 
est le plus bel arbre, et la rose est la plus belle fleur. 3. Cette 
fille est ma plus jeune sour; elle est plus jeune que mon frere. 
- 4. Cet homme est mon meilleur ami. 5. La France est aussi 
belle que Angleterre. 6. L’ Allemagne n’est pas si grande que 
P Amérique. 7. L’or et Vargent sont les métaux les plus pré- 
cieux. 8. La Seine est moins longue que le Rhin. 9. Mon 
cheval est tres bon; votre cheval est meilleur; le cheval de mon 
voisin est Je meilleur. 10. Je nai pas le moindre souvenir 


XX FIRST PART. [36, 37, 


(remembrance) de cet homme. 11. Il demeure en France. Du 
vin de France; le roi de Suede. 


6. —1. The rose is more beautiful than the lily. 2. Charles 
(Charles) is the youngest of my brothers. 3. Iron (Le fer, as 
generic) is more useful than gold. 4. This young man is my 
dearest friend. 5. This man is my best friend. 6. The ivy is 
as beautiful as the vine. 7. France is more beautiful than 
Germany. 8. England is older than America. 9. This man’s 
voice is good, but this woman’s voice is better. 10. My cousin 
is the best man in (de) the world. 11. My best friend (f.) 
lives in America. 12. I have not the least remembrance of 
my brother. 13. He is smaller than his little sister. 


NUMERALS. 


37. Below are given the cardinal and ordinal numbers to 20 
(higher numbers to be learned as they occur). 


CARDINALS. ORDINALS. 

1 un 1st premier 

2 deux 2d _ second (c = g) or 
deuxieme (% = 2) 

3 trois 3d troisiéme 

4 quatre Ath quatriéme 

5 cing (q=k) ) 5th cinguiéme 


6 six (w= ss) | Finals usually silent 6th siaiéme (a2 = 2) 
7 sept (sét) f before consonant- 7th septiéme 





8 huit (“it) sounds. Before gth hwitieme 
9 neuf (f=.) oe =" and oth newvidme 
10 dix (w= ss) | 10th diwieme (a = 2) 
11 onze 11th onzieme 
12 douze 12th douzidéme 
13 treize (ei = 2 long) 13th treiziéme : 


14 quatorze 14th quatorziéme 


ve et 2 eee ee of es eee Ct ft 
fs a yee 


“td ao eae 2 


37-40.] NUMERALS. XXI 


CARDINALS. ORDINALS, 
15 quinze 15th quinziéme 
16 seize (ei = 2 long) 16th seiziéme 
17 dia-sept (diss-sét, Fr. 7) 17th dix-septieme 
18 dix-huit (diz-it) 18th dix-huitiime 
19 dix-neuf (diz-neuff) 19th dix-neuvieme 
20 vingt (gt silent) 20th vingtiéme 
etc. ete. 
INFLECTION. 


38. CARDINALS up to a million are invariable, except that 
un is in the feminine wne, and that quatre-vingts ‘80’ (literally 
‘four twenty’s, fourscore’), and multiples of cent ‘100’ have 
the plural sign s when not followed by an added nu- 
meral. — Ex. deux cents ‘200, but deux cent trois ‘203,’ quatre- 
vingt-neuf ‘89.’ 

' Nore 1,—In dates, cent and quatre-vingt are invariable. 


Notre 2.— Cent and mille do not require the indefinite article: cent 
(mille) personnes ‘a hundred (a thousand) persons.’ 


39. ORDINALS are treated precisely like adjectives. 


40. ANOMALOUS UsaGe. — In dates and before names. of 
sovereigns, cardinals are used instead of ordinals, except for 
“the first” (and, optionally, also “the second” before names 
of sovereigns). — Ex. Le cing octobre ‘the 5th of October’ ; 
Henri quatre ‘Henry Fourth.’ 


Exercise XII (a, 3). 


Mase. Fem. 
habitant ‘inhabitant’ . . . habitante ‘inhabitant’ 
le theme ‘the theme’. . . . la lecon ‘lesson’ 
le mot ‘the (common) word’ . Ja parole ‘the (notable) word’ 
unan‘ayear’. . .. . . une année ‘a year’ 
un quart ‘a quarter’. . . . wne heure ‘an hour’ 


q 


\ 


Xx FIRST PART. (40. 


Masc. Fem. 
- le soldat ‘the soldier’. . . . . . wnearmée ‘an army’ 
octobre ‘ October ’ la date ‘the date’ 
cent ‘100’ 


mille (or mi/ in dates after 1000 a.p.) £1000’ 
quatre-vingts ‘80’: in ‘81,’ ete., without final s 

en ‘in, in the year’ (also V’an ‘the year’) 

pendant ‘during’ ; par ‘per, a’; avec ‘with’ 

une hewre ‘an hour’ or ‘one o’clock’; (deux heures, etc.) 


a.—1. J’ai un frére, une seur et trois cousins. 2. Vous 
avez cing chevaux. 3. Il a quatre-vingts ans (= ‘He is 80 years | 
old’); elle a quatre-vingt-deux ans. 4. Cette ville a trots mille 
habitants ; ce village a trois cents habitants. 5. J’ai la seconde 
legon et le troisiéme theme. 6. En mil huit (or dix-huit) cent 
vingt; en mil huit cent quatre-vingt; en mil huit cent quatre- 
vingt-huit. 7. Le premier octobre (‘of’ usually left out in 
French) ; le deux (trois, etc.) octobre; Henri premier (‘the’ 
omitted); Charles deux (or second), Henri trois (quatre, etc.). 
8. Il y a cent mille soldats dans cette armée (obs. French ‘hun- 
dred,’ not ‘a hundred’). 9. Pendant les premieres années. 
10. Il est trois heures, cing heures et un quart. 


b. —1. He has one cow and two oxen. 2. My mother has 
four white horses. 3. This man is 85 years old (transl. ‘ has 
82 years ’), and this woman is 80 years old. 4. There are 200 

“words in the first lesson. 5. Charles I; Charles II; Henry V. 
6. The first of May (mai) and the second of October. 7. In 
the year 1888 (cf. sentence 6, under a). 8. It is one o’clock; 
it is eight o’clock. 9. He is rich (riche) with fifty dollars 
(dollars) a year. 


41-44.] PRONOUNS, ETC. XXIII 


PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 


41. The pam  eoaaae are either conjunctive or dis- 




















junctive. A rue of f Ue, 
a. Shen b. Dissunctive 
{placed directly before (or after) the verb as unemphatic [separated fr, the verb, save 
subject or object]: as predic.; emphatic]: 
je‘t’ ... .- me ‘me, to me’ moi ‘1, me’ 
tu ‘thou’ . . te ‘thee, to thee’ toi ‘thou, thee’ 
gq heat? te* him, it } lui ‘to him} /ui ‘he, him’ 
elle ‘she, it’ . la ‘her, it’ ) (it, her)’ elle ‘she, her’ 
nous ‘we’ . . nous‘us,tous’ - nous ‘we, us’ 
vous ‘you’. . vous ‘you, to you’ vous ‘you, you’ 
ils, m. ‘th m. ) ‘ 
vi ey les ‘them,’ leur ‘to them’ oe they : 
elles, f. ‘they’ § elles f.) them 


Norr 1.— Je, me, te, le, la are before vowel-sounds /’, m’, t’, 
P,P. — Ex. jai ‘T have,’ il m’aime ‘he loves me.’ 

Nott 2.— To the disjunctive pronoun is often appended the 
emphatic méme ‘self’: e.g. moi-méme ‘I myself,’ ete. 


42. POSITION OF THE CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. — The 
conjunctive personal pronouns, whether construed as subject 
or object (direct or indirect), precede the personal verb: e.g. 
Je le vois ‘1 see him,’ je vous le donne ‘I give it to you.’ 

Exception. — In two common cases they follow, as in Eng- 
lish, the verb (being then attached to it by a hyphen), viz. : — 


[43.] The subject-pronoun (je, tu, ete.) in interrogative 
clauses: e.g. ai-je ‘have I,’ Pavez-vous? ‘have you it?’ 


[44.] The object-pronoun (me, te, etc.) in affirmative im- 
perative clauses, — me, te being then, however, replaced by mo/, 


XXIV FIRST PART. [44-46. 


to/, except before en (46). — Ex. donnez-le ‘ give it,’ donnez-le- 
lui ‘give it to him,’ aimez-moi ‘love me,’ donnez-moi ‘give me,’ 
donnez-m’en ‘ give me some.’ 


45. Of two object-pronouns, that of the 3d person comes 
nearest the verb, le (la, les) preceding Jui (leur).— Ex. Je vous 
le donne ‘I give it to you.’ Donnez-le-moi ‘Give it to me.’ 
Je le lui donne ‘I give it to him.’ 

Notrt.— Two conjunctives of which the first is a direct object 1st 
or 2d person, cannot occur. Hence (not J/ me vous donne, but) Il me 


donne & vous ‘He gives me to you.’ J/ vous envoie a lui ‘He sends you to 
him’: but Z/ vous l’envoie ‘He sends him to you.’ 


46. PRONOMINAL PARTICLES: — En ‘therefrom, thereof’ 
and y ‘thereto’ are ordinarily used with reference to things, en 
instead of de /ui (elle, eux, elles), and y instead of @ /ui (elle, 
eux, elles). They are then placed after other pronouns. — Ex. 
Il lui en parle ‘He speaks to him of it.’ 


ExercisE XIII (a, 0). 


Indicative present of aimer ‘love’: 
Sing. 1. j'aime ‘I love’ (etc., cf. n.) pl. 1. nous aimons ‘ we love’ 
2. tu aimes ‘thou lovest’ 2. vous aimez ‘you love’ 
3. il aime ‘he loves’ 5. ils aiment ‘they love’ 
Norr. — The French present (j'aime etc.) corresponds not only to the 
indefinite present in English (‘I love’), but also to the progressive (‘I 
am loving’), and the emphatic present (‘I do love’). 
aimez! ‘love!’ (Imperative 2d pl.) 
donner ‘give’ (Pres. je donne etc., like j'aime) 
penser ‘think’ (Pres. je pense etc.) 
je crois ‘I believe’ 
il est d ‘it belongs to’ 
jai besoin de ‘I need’ (lit. ‘ have need of ’) 
voict ‘ behold, here is, here are’ 


46, 47.] PRONOUNS, ETC. XXV 


Nore 1.— Vous ‘you’ may, as in English, refer to one person or sev- 
eral, Ju ‘thou’ is used between intimate friends and near relatives. 

Notre 2.— The only way to render a conjunctive personal pronoun em- 
phatic is to place the disjunctive form before it, or after the predicate: 
e.g. Moi, je l’aime, or Je laime, moi ‘I love him.’ For the 3d person the 
disjunctive form alone is sometimes used: Lui le pense ‘ He thinks so.’ 

a.—1. Je Paime (give in each instance all possible render- 
ings of the 3d persons: here ‘him,’ ‘her,’ or ‘it’); je vous 
aime; mol, je les aime. 2. I! me le donne; i/ vous /e donne; je 
le lui donne; nous le lui donnons; je le leur donne. 3. Vous 
me lavez dit (‘said’). 4. I/ parle de mor (to/, Jui, etc.). 5. I 
pense & (‘of’) moi (tos, lui, etc.) ; mol, je pense & eux; nous 
pensons & elles. 6. Aimez-moi; aimez-le. 7. Donnez-moi une 
plume; donnez-lui une plume; donnez-la-mor. 8. Vous avez la 
rose, donnez-la-moi. 9. Pensez & moi et alui. 10. Ce livre est 
@ elle. 11. Donnez-moi du papier, j’en ai besoin. 12. Donnez- 
nous des plumes, nous en avons besoin. 13. Voici du beurre: 
donnez-m’en. 14. J’ai sa parole, et jy crois. 15. Je le donne 
moi-méme ;, je le rene & lui-méme. h 

b. —1. He loves’ me, and I love him. 2. We love him, and 
he loves us. 3. I give him some pens. , 4. Here is a hat: I 
give it to him; I give it to her; I give it to them; I give it 


to you. 5. They speak of me and of him. 6. Yan think of . 


him and of her. 7. Love me, and love heralso. 8. Give me 
a book; give hima book. 9. Here is a book, give it to her; 
here are the books, give them to him. 10. Think of (@) me, 
and of her. 11. This horse belongs to him. 12. I have a fine 
house, and I speak of it. 13. They have fine houses, and they 
speak of them. 14. Here is the paper, give me some. 15. He 
has a fine book, and I am thinking (= think) of it. 


47. THE REFLEXIVE EXPRESSION. — English reflexive ex- 
pressions like ‘I praise myself,’ etc., are in French rendered 
either by je me loue, lit. ‘I praise me’ (= ‘myself’ wnem- 
phatic) or by je me loue moi-méme ‘I praise me myself’ 


“+ 


XXVI FIRST PART. [47, 43. 


(‘myself’ emphatic), etc. —Expressions like ‘I think of my- 
self, etc., if also in French the reflexive is preceded by a 
preposition, are rendered by je pense &@ moi-méme (méme, how- 
ever, being often omitted, especially with the 3d person), ete. 

It is to be noted only that for the 3d person French has a 
special reflexive, viz., the conjunctive se (sing. or pl.: ‘ him- 
self, herself, themselves’: acc. or dat.), and the disjunctive 
soi. For soi, however, the regular personal pronoun (/u/, 
elle, eux, elles) is preferred in the plural, or with reference to 
an individual person. — E.g. J] (elle) se loue ‘He (she) praises 
himself (herself)’ or 1 (elle) se lowe lui-méme (elle-méme). 
Chacun pense a soi ‘Every one thinks of himself’ (subject 
indefinite). 1 ne songe qu’d lui (-méme) ‘ He thinks only of 
himself’ (subj. an individual). On doit rarement parler de soi 
‘One should seldom speak of himself (one’s self).’ 


Norr. — Se precedes other object-pronouns: i/ se /’est promis ‘he prom- 
ised it to himself.’ 


¥ POSSESSIVES. 


%, 


48. The possessives are either adjectives or pronouns. 

















ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS 
(combined with a noun) : (the noun understood) : 
M. F. M. F, 
Sing. mon ma (or mon, cf. le mien la mienne 
note 1) ‘my.’ ‘mine.’ 
PL mes les miens les miennes 
Sing. ton ta (or ton) ) , , le tien la tienne.) . 4,45. > 
Fi; tes \ thy. les tiens les vende thine. 
Sing. son sa (or son) ) ‘his, her, | /e sien lasienne ( ‘his, hers, 
Pl. ses ~ its.’ les siens les siennes §__ its.’ 
Sing. notre |. ‘ le notre la notre), ; 
Pik nos yang les nétres \ haat 
Sing. votre F ‘ le votre la vétre|, ; 
Pl. vos \ ae les vétres Ser era 








Sing. leur \ their.’ le leur — la leur 


1ye leurs les leurs ‘ theirs.’ 


48, 49.] PRONOUNS, ETC. XXVII 


Nore 1.— The feminine forms mon, ton, son are used before 
words beginning with a vowel or h ‘mute.’ 

Nott 2.— When the pronoun-forms are preceded by de or a, 
these prepositions are contracted, as usual, with the definite 
article (i.e. de le mien to du mien, a le mien to au mien, etc.). 


49. The possessor determines, as in English, which pos- 
sessive form to use, but this form is then, farther, made to 
agree in gender and number with the noun possessed. — Ex. 
jai mon livre; ma plume; mes livres ‘I have my book (pen, 
books); son livre ‘his (her) book’; sa plume ‘his (her) pen. 


ExercisE XIV (a, 6). 


Masc. Fem. 

le caractére ‘(the) character’ Ja disposition ‘(the) disposition ’ 
le courage ‘(the) courage’ . la hardiesse ‘(the) boldness ’ 
le mérite ‘(the) merit’ . . la vertu ‘(the) virtue’ 
le souvenir ‘(the) remem- 

brance’?’. . . . . . . la mémoire ‘(the) memory ’ 
le sawoir-vivre ‘(the) good 

behavior, breeding’ . . la conduwite ‘(the) conduct’ 


aimable ‘amiable, kind ’ 
courageux ‘ courageous ’ 
vertueux ‘virtuous ’ 

mémorable ‘memorable ’ 

a.—1. Mon fréere et le tien; ma seur et la tienne; mes 
Freres et les tiens ; mes sceurs et les tiennes. 2. Votre mérite 
et le notre ; vos mérites et les notres. 3. Son (give all possible 
renderings of son) caractére ; le caractére de mon frére et le mien ; 
leur disposition et la votre (et la leur). 4. Ses vertus et les 
leurs. 5. Ces hommes parlent de ton ami et du mien, de ta 
scour et de la mienne, de tes freres (or seeurs) et des miens (or 
miennes). 6. Je donne du pain a ton petit frere et au mien. 
7. Je pense & mon ami et au leur; & mes amis et aux Jeurs. 
8. Je pense a Vaimable enfant de cette vertueuse mére et au votre. 


XXVUI FIRST PART. f49-51. 


b.—1. My book and his; my pen and his; my books and 
his; my pens and his. 2. Our memory and yours; our mem- 
ories and yours. 3. His character and theirs; her character 
and theirs; his (her) merits and theirs. 4. We speak of his 
kind brother and of yours; of his kind sister and of yours. 
5. I am thinking of my virtuous friend’s great courage and of 
yours. 6. The remembrance of his good disposition and of 
hers is very dear to me (me). : 


DEMONSTRATIVES. 


50. The demonstratives are either adjectives or pronouns. 


ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS 
(combined with the noun) : (noun or phrase understood) : 
M. F. _M. F. 
Sing. ce (cet, cf. note) cette | celui . . . celle 
‘this, that.’ ‘this (one) or that (one).’ 
ie <3 & ces COUR ris. . (Cees 
‘these, those.’ ‘these (ones) or those (ones).’ 
ce ‘that’ (or e’, incest [ence. 
‘it is, that is’), indef. refer- 





Nore. — Cet is used before words beginning with a vowel or & ‘ mute.’ 


51. To emphasize the difference between ‘this’ and ‘that,’ 
-ci ‘here’ and -/a@ ‘there’ are frequently suffixed to the noun 
determined by ce, or to celui. With the pure pronoun ce they 
form cees ‘this’ and ee/a (which may be contracted to ¢a) 
‘that.’ — Ex. Ce cheval-ei et celui-/a ‘this horse and that one.’ 
Cette femme-ei et celle-/a ‘this woman and that one.’ Ce/a (or, 
in familiar phrase, ga) est bon ‘ that is good.’ 


EXERCISE XV (a, 0). 
Mase. Fem. 


lejour‘theday’ . .. . . . la nuit ‘the night’ 
le mois‘the month’ . . . . . la semaine ‘the week’ 


ES TT Pe eee a ee 


Fe ts oe es 


51, 52.] PRONOUNS, ETC. XXIX 


Masc. Fem. 
le langage ‘the language, talk’. . da langue ‘(the)language’ 
le garcon ‘the boy’ . . . . ta fille ‘the girl’ 
un enfant ‘child’ eal. . . une enfant ‘a little girl’ 
monsieur (pron. me-s‘eu) pl. messieurs madame (pl. mesdames) 
‘gentleman, sir, Mr.’ ‘madam, Mrs.’; dame 
méme (pl. -s) ‘same, -self’ [ ‘lady ’ 


sage ‘wise, prudent, good’; vrai ‘true’ 
dit ‘says;’ ‘said’ (pret.); ‘said’ (past pple) 
je dis ‘I say,’ tu dis ‘thou sayest,’ i dit ‘he says’ 
a.—1. Je pense a ce garcon et a cette fille; & cet enfant et a 
ces hommes. 2. J’aime cet enfant et celui de votre fréere ; ces 
enfants et ceux de votre freve. 3. Ce monsieur-er et celui-la ; 
ces dames-ei et celles-la. 4. Ce langage n'est pas si sage que 


celui de son ami. 5. Ce qgu’il (ce que ‘that which, what’) dit 


est vrai. 6. Cest vrai, ce jour-ci est tres beau. 7. Cees est bon, 
cela n’est pas bon. 8. Cest le méme mois. 


b. —1. This day and this night; these days and these nights. 
2. This girl and my cousin’s (= that of my cousin). 3. These 
books and my brother’s. 4. This gentleman and that lady. 


5. This language is very beautiful, more beautiful than that 


one. 6. These boys are very prudent, more prudent than those. 
7. Here are some pens: do you prefer (préférez-vous) these or 
those? 8. He loves this little girl, it is true. 9. This is true, 
but that is not true. 10. It is the same month, the same week, 
and the same day. 

INTERROGATIVES. 


52. The interrogatives are either adjectives or pronouns. 
ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS 
(combined with a noun) : (noun understood) : 
—— gui ‘who? whom?’ 
— gue (or, after preposition, guo/) ‘what?’ 
quel ‘which, what ?’! /eque/ ‘which (one) ?’ 





/ 


KK FIRST PART. [53-58. 


53. Quel is inflected like an ordinary adjective, doubling / 
in the fem. — In lequel, compounded of the def. article Je and 
quel, each element has its independent inflection; and a pre- 
ceding & or de combines with de as usual. — Thus: m. lequel, 
f. laquelle; pl. m. lesquels, f. lesquelles ; — (de lequel =) duquel, 
(a lequel =) auquel, ete. 


54. Qui, que, quoi are invariable. 


RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
55. The relatives gu/, /eque/, quoi are also pronouns. They 
are described below : — 


[56.] Qui ‘who, which, that’ has the direct object-form que. 
But after a preposition qui (not que) is used, and can then refer 
only to persons (‘whom’). ‘Whose’ is expressed by dont (59). 


[57.] Legue/ ‘which,’ less often ‘who,’ is rarely used except 
after prepositions. It inflects like the interrog. lequel (53). 


[58.] Quo/s ‘ which, what’ is used chiefly after prepositions in a general or 
indefinite sense: e.g. J] n’y a rien de quot parler * There is nothing to speak 
of’ (lit. ‘ of which to speak ’). 


EXERCISE XVI (a, 0). 


Masc. Fem. 
le grand-pére ‘the grandfather’ lagrand’mére ‘the grandmother’ 
VPépoux ‘the husband’ . . . Jlépouse ‘the wife, spouse’ 
le maitre ‘the master, teacher’ la mattresse ‘mistress, teacher ’ 
le roi ‘the king’ . . . . . la reine ‘the queen’ 
Vempereur ‘the emperor’ . . Uimpératrice ‘the empress’ 


malade ‘sick’; mortel ‘mortal’ 

rouge ‘red’ 

arrivé ‘arrived,’ with aux. ‘be,’ not ‘have’ 
recu ‘received’ 

tombé ‘fallen’; acheté ‘bought’ 

ce qui (nom.), ce gue (ace.) ‘that which, what’ 


58, 59.] PRONOUNS, ETC. XXXTI 


a.—1. Quel roi? Quelle reine? Quels livres? Quelles per- 
sonnes? 2. Qui aimez-vous? 3. Laquelle de ces filles aimez- 
vous? 4, Que nous dit notre grand-pere? 5. A quoi pensez- 
vous? Leguel de ces maitres est le meilleur? 6. Lesquelles de 
ces filles sont bonnes? 7. J’ai deux fréeres (deux seurs); duquel 
(de laquelle) parlez-vous? 8. Auquel de vos fils pensez-vous? 
Auxquelles de vos filles pensez-vous? 9. C’est ma grand’mére 
gui est arrivée. 10. C’est la reine gue jaime. 11. L’époux 
(L’épouse) a gui elle pense est malade. 12. Les maitres (Les 
dames) @ gui vous pensez sont arrivés. 13. L’empereur (La 
reine) de gui (or dont: cf. 59) je parle. 14. Le cheval qui est 
arrivé et que jai acheté. 15. Le cheval auquel (not & qui) je 
donne de Veau. 16. Ce gui (‘that which’ =‘ what’) est vrai 
est bon; ce que je dis est vrai; ce qu’il dit est vrat. 


b. —1. Which king? which queen? which teachers (m.)? 
which teachers (f.)? 2. Which (one) of these horses? which 
(one) of these grandmothers? which (one) of these books? which 
(ones) of these houses? 3. Who is sick? whom do you love 
(transl. ‘love-you’)? who are they? 4. Of whom do you speak? 
to whom do youspeak? 5. Of which one (give both m. and f.) ? 
of which ones (m., f.)? 6. To which one (m. and f.)? to which 
ones (m.,f.)? 7. What does he say? 8. What are you think- 
ing of (a, which must precede ‘what’: A quoi etc.)? 9. The 
teacher who has (‘is’) arrived; the teacher whom I love; 
the boys whom we love. 10. The red rose’which you have; 
the white rose of which (not de qui) you speak. 11. My 
grandfather (grandmother, grandmothers) of whom you are 
thinking. 12. What he says is true. 


59. RELATIVE PARTICLES. — Dont ‘of (from) whom or 
which, whose, whence’ is often used for de with a relative; 
and o@ ‘to which, where’ is generally used for & (or dans) 
and a relative, with reference to place or time. — Ex. Le 
cheval dont (or dugque/) je parle ‘the horse of which I speak.’ 


XXXIT FIRST PART. [59, 60. 


La maison ou (or a /aguelle) je vais ‘the house to which 
I go.’ 

Nore. — Dont must be used when in English ‘whose’ is or 
could be used, unless preceded by a preposition, ‘whose’ must 
be expressed by duquel (de laquelle, etc.), instead of dont. The 
arrangement of the words is in either case the same as if ‘of 
whom’ (etc.) were used in English. — Ex. L’homme dont le 
Jils est arrivé ‘the man whose son (lit. ‘of whom the son’) 
has arrived.’ L’homme aw fils duguel vous parlez ‘the man 
éo whose son you speak.’ 


Exercise XVII (a, b). 


a.—1. L’empereur dont (or de qui, or duquel) ils parlent. 
2. [homme dont (or de qui, or duquel) vous avez regu ce 
cheval. 3. La maison dont (or de laquelle, but not de qui) il 
parle. 4. Le palais ou (or dans lequel) il demeure. 5. Le pére 
dont Venfant est malade. 6. Ce monsieur a Venfant duquel 
vous donnez la rose rouge. 7. L’arbre dont les feuilles sont 
tombées. 8. L’homme avec le fils duquel il est arrivé. : 


b. —1. The master of whom you speak; the horses of which 
you speak. 2. The man whose wife is sick; the men whose 
sons have arrived (sont arrivés). 3. This house the roof of 
which is red. 4. The man of whose son he speaks. 5. The 
(lady-) teacher of whose beautiful books we speak. 6. The 
king in whose palace I have been (éé). 7. The city to which 
(where) he has arrived. 


INDEFINITES. 


60. The indefinite pronouns and adjectives are quite numer- 
ous. When inflected at all, they are treated like ordinary 
adjectives, observing only that tout (f. toute) ‘every, all’ is in 
the plural tous (f. toutes), and that gue/gu’un (f. quelqwune) 
‘some one, somebody’ is in the plural m. quelques-uns (Ef. 
quelques-unes), being a compound of quelque and un. 


61-64. ] PRONOUNS, ETC. XXXII 


Observe also the following : — 

[61.] On ‘one’ (= ‘people generally, they’) is always sin- 
gular and used as subject alone. — Unless followed by a word 
beginning with J, it is frequently, for euphony, changed to /’en 
after et, si, ou, ov, que: e.g. si Von ‘if one’; et (¢ always silent) 
Von ‘and one’; qu’on or que Von (the latter usually before a 
k-sound). 


[62.] Aucun (adj., or pron. referring to a definite noun) ‘ any 
one, anybody,’ personne (pron. used indefinitely) ‘anybody,’ 
and rien (pron.) ‘anything,’ are usually construed with ne 
‘not’ (placed before the verb), and mean then ‘nobody (not 
anybody)’ and ‘nothing.’ This negative meaning they have 
without ne, if there is no verb.— Ex. J/ n’aime personne 
(rien) ‘He loves nobody (nothing).’ J/ n’aime aucune de ces 
Jjilles ‘He loves no one of these girls.’ Maimez-vous personne 
(rien)? ‘Do you not love anybody (anything)?’ Personne ne 
Paime ‘No one loves him.’ Qui aimez-vous? Personne. ‘Whom 
do you like? Nobody.’ 


[63.] Mul (adj.) ‘no, (pron., only as subject) ‘none’ requires 
ne before the verb. — Ex. Nu/ ne Vaime ‘None loves him.’ 
Je n’en ai nulle connaissance ‘I have no knowledge of it.’ 


[64.] Tout before a noun means ‘every, any, all,’ if the noun 
is undefined ; but ‘ whole, all,’ if it is defined by an article or 
pronoun. Asa pure pronoun, fowt means ‘everything, all.” — 
Ex. tout homme ‘every (any) man,’ toute ville ‘every city’ ; 
toute la ville ‘the whole city, tous les hommes ‘all men,’ tout 
son courage ‘all his courage’; tout est perdu ‘everything (all) 
is lost.’ 

ExerctsE XVIIT (a, 5). 
chaque (invar.) ‘every, each’. . . chacun(f. -e) ‘every one ’ 
quelque (pl.-s) ‘some’ . . . . . quelqu’un (cf. 60) ‘some 
body, anybody ’ 
plusieurs (imvar.) ‘several’ . . . qautrut (invar.) ‘others’ 


XXXIV | FIRST PART. [64. 


? 


tout le monde ‘all the world, everybody 
il chante ‘he sings’ 
il danse ‘he dances ’ 
il reste ‘he (it) remains ’ 
out ‘yes,’ non ‘no,’ bien ‘well,’ si ‘if? 
Nore. — The negative particle me ‘not’ is placed before the verb, and 
can be separated from it only by personal object-pronouns. E.g. // n’aime 
personne ‘ He loves nobody.’ -Aucun ne l’aime ‘ No one loves him.’ 
a.—1. On chante et on danse. 2. Tout homme est mortel. 
3. Tous les hommes sont mortels. 4. Quelgu’un me Va dit. 
5. Avez-vous quelques livres? 6. Out, jen ai quelques-uns. 
7. Donnez-moi quelques-unes de vos belles pommes. 8. N’aimez- 
vous personne? 9. Jen’aime personne. 10. Personne ne chante. 
11. Personne ne me Va dit. 12. Qui aimez-vous? Personne; 
Laquelle de ces filles aimez-vous? Aucune. 13. Aucun ami ne me 
reste. 14. Navez-vous rien? Jenairien. Rien. 15. Toutes 
ces filles sont belles. 16. Chaque fille a une rose. 17. Plusieurs 
(or plusieurs personnes) Vont dit. 18. Cet homme ne parle pas 
beaucoup d’autrus. 19. Tout le monde en parle. 


b. —1. One sings, and one is happy (= they sing and are 
happy). 2. Every good mother loves her children. 3. All 
men are mortal. 4. All her children are beautiful. 5. Here 
are pens (des plumes); here are some (=a few: gue/ques) 
pens; here are some (en voici, or en voici quelques-unes = ‘a 
few’). 6. He loves nobody, and nobody loves him. 7. He 
thinks of nobody, and nobody thinks of him. 8. Do you love 
anybody? No, I love nobody. Nobody. 9. Have you not 
said anything? I have said nothing.: I have said nothing to 
him. Nothing. 10. Every child loves this teacher. 11. Every 
one of these boys speaks of him. 12. Everybody dances. 
15, I am thinking of several persons. 


65, 66.] VERBS. XXXV 


VERBS. 
A. Regular Verbs. 


65. French verbs are divided into four classes, according to 
the ending of their infinitive, which is as below : — 


I. -er: Ex. aimer ‘love.’ 

Il. -ir: 3 “ finir ‘finish, 
Ill. -re: “ rompre ‘break.’ 
IV. -oir: “ recevoir ‘receive.’ 


Classes I-III comprise nearly all the verbs of the language. 
These, with some few exceptions (so-called irregular verbs), 
are conjugated without change of their radical form, and ac- 
cording to one model. Class IV comprises only sixteen (pri- 
mary) verbs. These all vary the root-form, and each one has, 
besides, some peculiarity of its own. 

The Reeurar ConsuGation is, then, properly made up of 
the first three classes. As it is of some practical advantage, 
however, to place the paradigms of the four classes side by side, 
that verb of the fourth class (recevoir) which, on the whole, 
represents best the general character of that class is here con- 
jugated alongside the model-verbs of the first three classes. 

Notr. —It may be well to caution the student that many 
grammars (especially French) adopt four regular conjugations : 
I er-verbs, IT ir-verbs, III o/r-verbs, IV re-verbs. 


66. THE consuGATiIoNn of the simple tenses of a verb con- 
sists in adding to its different stems certain endings. These 
endings (in the paradigms below marked by heavy type) are 
with few exceptions identical for all verbs. 

The stem of a verb, as seen in the paradigms below, consists 
either of the root alone (in I-III unchanged, in IV often 
changed), or of the root extended by some added ending. 


XXXVI 


FIRST PART. 


[67. 


67. Below are given the simple tenses of aimer, finir, and 
rompre, which may serve as models for all regular verbs, and 


of recevoir. 


j aim-e 
‘T love (am loving, 
do love)’ 


tu aim-es 

al aim-e 

nous aim-ons 
vous aim-ez 
ils aim-ent 1 


jaim-ais * 
*T loved (was lov’g, 
did love)’ 


tu aim-ais 

il aim-ait 
nous aim-ions 
vous dim-/ez 
ils aim-aient 1 


jaim-ai 8 

‘I loved ’ 
tu aim-as 
il aim-a 
nous aim-ames 
vous aim-ates 
ils aim-erent 1 


jaim-er-ai ® 

‘IT shall (will) love’ 8 
tu aim-er-as 
il aim-er-a 


INDICATIVE 
Present 
je fin-is je romp-s 
‘I finish,’ etc. ‘I break,’ etc. 
tu fin-is tu romp-s 
il fin-tt al romp-t 2 


nous fin-iss-ons 
vous fin-iss-ez 
ils fin-iss-ent } 


nous romp-ons 
vous romp-ez 
ils romp-ent 1 


Imperfect 


je fin-iss-ais 
‘I finished,’ etc. 


tu fin-iss-ais 

il fin-iss-ait 
nous fin-iss-ions 
vous fin-iss-lez 
ils fin-iss-aient 


je romp-ais 
‘I broke,’ etc. 


tu romp-ais 

il romp-ait 
nous romp-ions 
vous romp-iez 
ils romp-aient 


Preterit 
je fin-is je romp-is 
‘I finished ’ ‘I broke’ 
tu fin-is tu romp-is 
il fin-it il romp-it 


nous fin-imes 
vous fin-ites 
ils fin-irent 


nous romp-imes 
vous romp-ites 
ils romp-irent 


Future 4 


Je fin-ir-ai ® 


‘T shall finish ’ 
tu fin-ir-as 
il fin-ir-a 


je romp-r-ai ® 


‘I shall break ’ 
tu romp-r-as 
il romp-r-a 


je recoi-s 
‘TI receive,’ etc. 


tu regol-s 

il recoi-t 

nous recev-Ons 
vous recev-€Z 
ils recoiv-ent 


je recev-ais 
‘ T received,’ etc, 


tu recev-ais 

il recev-ait 
nous recev-/ons 
vous recev-[eZ 
ils recev-aient 


je reg-us 

‘I received ’ 
tu rec-us 
il rec-ut 
nous rec-imes 
vous rec-ites 
ils rec-urent 


Je recev-r-ai ® 

*T shall receive’ 
tu recev-r-as 
il recev-r-a 





1 -ent silent everywhere in 3d pl. 
8 ai sounds = @ in impf. and cond.; but=é in pret. and fut. (6). 


4 The student must observe in fut. the use of ‘shall’ or ‘ will.’ 


2 Final ¢ dropped after c, d, t. 


Note 


that the stem of the fut. is the infinit. (recevoir, however, losing its 07), 
and the endings, the present of avoir (73). 


67.) 


nous aim-er-ons 
vous aim-er-@Z 
ils aim-er-ont 


jaim-er-ais ? 
*T should (would) 
love’ 


tu aim-er-ais 

il aim-er-ait 
nous aim-er-ions 
vous aim-er-jez 
ils aim-er-aient 


j um-e 


*I (may, shall) love’ 


tu aim-es 

il aim-e 

nous aim-fons 
vous aim-jez 
ils aim-ent 


j aim-asse 

‘I might (could, 

should) love’ 

tu aim-asses 
il aim-at 
nous aim-assions 
vous aim-assiez 
ils aim-assent 


VERBS. 


Future (continued). 


nous fin-ir-ons 
vous fin-ir-ez 
ils fin-ir-ont 


nous romp-r-ons 
vous romp-r-eZ 
ils romp-r-ont 


Conditional 1 


je fin-ir-ais 
*T should finish’ 


tu fin-ir-ais 
il fin-ir-ait 
nous fin-ir-ions 
vous fin-ir-iez 
ils fin-ir-aient 


je romp-r-ais 
*T should break’ 


tu romp-r-ais 

il romp-r-ait 
nous romp-r-ions 
vous romp-r-iez 
ils romp-r-aient 


SUBJUNCTIVE 2 


Present 
. 
je Jin-iss-e je romp-e 
‘I (etc.) finish’ ‘I (etc.) break’ 
tu fin-iss-es tu romp-es 
il fin-iss-e il romp-e 


nous fin-iss-ions 
vous fin-iss-ieZ 
ils fin-iss-ent 


nous romp-ions 
vous romp-iez 
ils romp-ent 


Imperfect 


Je fin-isse 

*T might (etc.) 

finish ’ 

tu fin-isses 
il fin-it 
nous fin-issions 
vous fin-issiez 
ils fin-issent 


je romp-isse 

‘I might (etc.) 

break ’” 

tu romp-isses 
il romp-it 
nous romp-issions 
vous romp-issiez 
ils romp-issent 


XXXVIT 


nous recev-r-ons 
vous recev-r-@Z 
ils recev-r-ont 


je recev-r-ais 
*T should 

receive’ 

tu recev-r-ais 

il recev-r-ait 

nous recev-r-ions 

vous recev-r-ieZ 

ils recev-r-aient 


je recoiv-e 

‘I (etc.) receive’ 
tu recov-es 
il recoiv-e 
nous recev-ions 
vous recev-iez 
ils regoiv-ent— 


je vec-usse 

‘I might (etc.) 

receive ’ 

tu re¢c-usses 
il rec-ut 
nous re¢-uSsions 
vous Te¢g-USSieZ 
ils rec-ussent 





1 The student must observe in cond. the use of ‘should’ or ‘ would.’ 
Note that the stem of the cond. is the infinit. (recevoir, however, losing 
its oi); and the endings the shortened imperfect of avoir (73). 

2 Cf. foot-note 3, preceding page. 

8 The subjunctive is variously rendered in English. The meanings 
given above are only the most typical. 


XXXVITI | FIRST PART. [67. 


IMPERATIVE 
aim-e ‘love!’ Jin-is ‘finish!’ = romp-s ‘break’ _regoi-s ‘receive!’ 
aim-ons ‘let us love’ /jin-iss-ons romp-Ons recev-Ons 
aim-ez ‘love’ Jin-iss-ez . romp-€Z recev-e€Z 
INFINITIVE 


aim-er ‘(to) love’ (jin-ir‘finish’ romp-re‘ break’  recev-oir ‘ receive’ 


PARTICIPLES 
Present 
aim-ant Jin-iss-ant romp-ant recev-ant 
‘loving’ ‘ finishing’ ‘ breaking’ - * receiving’ 
Past 
aim-€ ‘loved’ _fin-/ ‘ finished ’ romp-u ‘broken’ _—__re¢-u ‘received’ 


Nore. — Precisely like re-cevoir are conjugated all compounds of -cevoir 
(aper-, con-, de-, and per-cevoir). Other verbs in -oir are described in 87-9. 


I. II. III. 
accepter ‘accept.’ agir ‘act.’ défendre ‘defend, forbid.’ 
braler ‘burn.’ batir ‘build.’ entendre ‘ hear.’ 
couper § cut.’ choisir ‘choose. _—_—perdre ‘lose.’ 
donner ‘ give.’ guérir * cure.’ pendre ‘ hang.’ 
garder ‘protect, mnourrir ‘nourish.’ répondre ‘answer.’ 
keep.’ punir ‘punish.’ rendre ‘ give, return.’ 


parler ‘speak.’ —remplir ‘fill, fulfil.’ vendre ‘ sell.’ 
penser ‘think.’ TV. concevoir ‘conceive’ 
le doigt ‘the finger’; la main ‘the hand.’ 
le devoir ‘the duty’; le fruit ‘the fruit’; pawvre ‘ poor.’ 


Obs. IZ se (dat.) coupa la main ‘he cut his hand’ (lit. ‘the 
hand for himself’). 


Nore. — Tue Sussuncrive is used chiefly in dependent clauses when the 
statement contained in them is not certain of being or becoming a reality, 
or when it causes a feeling akin to surprise. The subjunctive is, then, 
required by certain preceding words (as of desire, command, fear, doubt, 
joy, or sorrow, etc.) imparting to the subordinate clause such a character. 
Some of these words will be given in the exercises that follow. 


67.] VERBS. XX Rx 


Verbs (regular) requiring the subjunctive : — 
demander ‘ask, require, souhaiter ‘wish, désirer ‘desire, 
ordonner ‘command, prier ‘pray, ask, défendre ‘forbid.’ 


Exercise XIX (a, b). 


a.—1. Je coupe l'arbre; je désire* qwil le coupe ; je batis 
(2 tenses) la maison; jentends quelqwun. 2. Il me donne son 
livre ; il punit (2 tenses) le garcon ; elle vend (not vendt : cf. foot- 
note 2, p. xxxv1) des fruits. 3. Je gardai mon livre; je gar- 
derai mon livre ; je lui parlais ; je lui parlerais si j’y pensais. 
4. Il se brala le doigt; il se brilera la main; il pensait a son 
frere ; si vous aimiez cet homme, il penserait & vous. 5. Il 
remplit (2 tenses) son devoir ; j’ordonnais qwil remplit son 
devoir. 6. Nous perdions nos amis; je souhaite que nous 
ne perdions pas nos amis; il désira que nous perdissions nos 
amis ; nous nourrissions les pauvres ; il ordonna que nous nour- 
rissions les pauvres. 7. Ils entendaient sa parole; ils répon- 
draient, s’ils vous avaient (had) entendu. 8. Ils donnent de 
Vargent a cet homme, et je défends qwils lui en donnent (transl. 
‘J forbid them to give him any’); ils choisissent Vutile; je 
désire qwils choisissent utile; je désirais qwils choisissent 
Vutile; ils nous rendent notre argent; je souhaite qwils me 
rendent mon argent. 9. Il recoit de Vargent; il recevra des 
fleurs; je défends qwil recoive mes coraux. 


b. —1. Conjugate in full parler, punir, vendre, concevoir. 
2. Give the forms of couper, choisir, and perdre that have dif- 
ferent endings, and their meanings. 3. Give the forms of 
penser, agir, and entendre that have the circumflex, and their 
meaning. 4. Give the forms of nowrrir whose stem is nour- 
riss-, and their meaning. 5. Give the forms of brdler, bdtir, 
and répondre that terminate in -ons, and their meaning, and 
then those that terminate in -ions, and their meaning. 





* Words requiring thé subjunctive are spaced. 


Da F FIRST PART. [ 68-72. 
68. MINOR CHANGES. 


[69.] E mute, and also é (save in fut. and cond.), become 
open before a syllable containing ane mute. This is denoted 
by their change into é, or by the doubling of a following / or t 
(cf. 29). — Thus, mener ‘lead’: pr. ind. je mene, tu menes, il 
mene ; nous menons, vous menez, ils ménent (subj. je mene, etc. : 
ein Ist and 2d pl.; imp’ve mene) ; fut. mé-ne-rai, etc. (through- 
out); cond. menerais. — Céder ‘yield’: pr. je céde; fut. je 
céderai. — Appeler ‘call’: pr. jappelle, etc., etc. (-ell- wher- 
ever mener has e@n-). 

Nore. — Celer ‘hide,’ geler ‘ freeze,’ acheter ‘buy,’ and some 
others take e, instead of doubling / and ¢. 


[70.] Verbs in -cer and -ger change ¢ and g to ¢ and ge 
respectively before a, ai, o. — Thus, menacer ‘menace’: pr. 
pl. menagons (since menacons would be = menakons) ; impf. 
menagais, etc. — manger ‘eat’: mangeons, mangeais, etc. 


[71.] Verbs in -yer usually change y to 7 before e mute. — 
Thus, noyer ‘drown’: pr. je nofe. 


EXERCISE XX (0). 


mener ‘ lead’ * celer ‘hide, conceal ’ tracer ‘trace’ 
jeter ‘throw’ acheter ‘ buy ’ manger ‘eat’ 
appeler ‘ call’ employer ‘use’ protéger ‘ protect ’ 


b. —Conjugate the simple tenses of above nine verbs, noting 
every change of letters according to 68-71. 


CoMPOUND VERB-FORMS. 


72, The compounp TENSEs of the active are made by the aid 
of avoir ‘have’ (or, in the case of certain intransitive verbs, 
especially of motion, by the aid of étre ‘be’); and all the 
forms of the passive by the aid of 6tre ‘be.’ 


73.] 


VERBS. 


XLI 


73. The conjugation of these auxiliaries, which is quite irreg- 
ular, is given below. 


Sing. 


Pi 


Sing. 


rh 


Sing. 


Pl. 


Sing. 


Co 


INDICATIVE 
Avoir ‘have’ 


Present 


. fai (pronounce jé) 


*T have’ 
tu as 
al a 


. nous avons 
. VOUS avez 
. ils ont 


Imperfect 


. favais 


*T had’ 


. tu avais 
. iu avait 
. nous avions 


. Vous aviez 
. ils avaient 


Preterit 


. feus (eu = Fr. u throughout) 


‘T had’ 


. tu eus 

. i eut 

. nous edmes 
. vous eites 
. tls eurent 


Future 


. Paurai 


‘T shall (will) have’ 


. tu auras 
al aura . 


Etre ‘be’ 


je suis 

‘Tam’ 
tu es (pr. = é) 
il est (= é) 
nous sommes 
vous étes 
ils sont 


7 étais - 

~ *T was’ 
tu étais 

al était 
nous étions 
vous étiez 
ils étatent 


Je fus 
‘I was, I became * 
tu fus 
al fut 
nous fames 
vous fites 
ils furent 


je serat 

‘I shall (will) be’ 
tu seras 
al sera 


Fh 


Sing. 


Pl. 


Sing. 


fad 


Sing. 


Pi. 


bo oe 


whee &w b 


one wh» 


: 


wh 


FIRST PART. 


. nous aUrons 
. vous aurez 
. tls auront 


Conditional 


. aurais 


‘I should (would) have’ 
tu aurais 


. a aurait: 

. nous aurions 
. VOUS auriez 

. ils auratent 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
Present 
. J aie 
‘I have (may or 
shall have)’ 
. tu aies 
al ait 
. NOUS AYONS 
. Vous ayer 
. ils aient 
Imperfect 


j eusse (eu = uv) 
‘Thad (might, could, 
or should have)’ 


. tu eusses 
. al eat 
. NOUS eUussioOns 


. VOUS eussiez 
. als eussent ” 


[73. 


NOUS SerOns 
VOUS SeTeZ 
ils seront 


je serais 

‘I should (would) be’ 
tu serais 
il serait 


NOUs serions 
VOUS Seriez 
als seraient 


je sois 

‘I be (may, or 

shall be) ’ 

tu sois 
al soit 
NOUS SOYONS 
VOUS SOYeZ 
ils soient | 


je fusse 
‘I were (might, could. 
or should be) ’ 
tu fusses 
al fat 
nous fussions 
vous fussiez 
ils fussent 


73-76.) VERBS. XLIII 


IMPERATIVE 
Sing. 2. aie ‘have!’ sots ‘be!’ 

Pl. 1. ayons ‘let us have!’ soyons ‘let us be!’ 
2. ayez ‘have!’ soyez ‘be!’ 
INFINITIVE 
avoir ‘(to) have’ étre *(to) be’ 

PARTICIPLES 
ayant ‘having’ étant ‘being’ 
eu (= Fr. u) ‘had’ été ‘been’ 


74. To form the compound TENSES of any verb, active or 
passive, combine the auxiliaries with the past participle of 
the main verb on the same principles as in English (observing 
75-6, below). Thus: act.: jai aimé ‘I have loved,’ j’avais 
aimé ‘I had loved,’ etc.; pass.: je suis aimé ‘I am loved,’ j’étais 
aimé ‘I was loved.’ 


[75.] It is to be observed only that the past participle (aimé), 
being in French subject to inflection like an adjective (sing. m. 
uimé, f. aimée ; pl. m. aimés, f. aimées), agrees with a preced- 
ing direct object if conjugated with avoir, but with the subject 
if conjugated with 6tre (reflexive verbs, hereafter, excepted). 
— Thus: La fille que jai aimée ‘the girl (that) I have loved.’ 
Elle est aimée ‘she is loved.’ Ces garcons sont aimés ‘these 
boys are loved.’ 

Nore. — The participle with avoir is unchanged if there is 
no preceding direct object. Thus: J’ai aimé cette fille. 


76. As already indicated in 72, certain intransitives are con- 
jugated with éfre instead of avoir. Among verbs always thus 
conjugated should be noticed especially the three verbs of 
motion, aller ‘go,’ arriver ‘arrive,’ venir (with most of its 


XLIV FIRST PART. (76. 


compounds) ‘come,’ and also naitre ‘be born, arise,’ and mourir 
‘die.’ — Ex. Il est arrivé ‘He has arrived.’ Jl est mort ‘He 
has died.’ 


Exercise XXI (a, b). 
Mase. Fem. 


le verre ‘the glass’ . . . . la bouteille ‘the bottle’ 
le livre ‘the book’ . . . . lalivre ‘the pound’ 


le morceau ‘the piece’. . . la tranche ‘the slice, piece’ 

le coffre ‘the trunk, chest’ . la malle ‘the wallet, trunk’ 
Pargent ‘(the) silver, money’ la monnaie ‘(the) coin, change’ 
Dieu ‘God’ . . . . . . déesse* goddess’ 


arriver ‘arrive’ (always with étre) 
si ‘if,’ chez ‘at, with, at the home of’ 


Verbs governing the subjunctive : 


exiger ‘exact, demand,’ appréhender ‘apprehend,’ 
regretter ‘ regret.’ 


a.—1. J’ai un cheval; je désire que vous ayez un cheval; 
je suis heureux ; elle prie Dieu que je sois heureux. 2. Nous 
avons des amis; nous sommes amis; nous avions des amis; nous 
étions amis. 38. Nous aurons de Vargent; nous serons bons; je 
pensais que nous aurions de lVargent; nous serions contents, st 
nous avions assez de livres. 4. Il désire que nous ayons cour- 
age, et que nous soyons heureux. 5. Vous avez une malle, lavez- 
vous achetée? 6. Oui, jai acheté cette malle; je Vai achetée chez 
M. (for Monsieur) A. 7. Ont-ils donné les livres au gargon? 
Out, ils les lui ont donnés. 8. Nous aurions vendu deux livres, 
si vous les aviez achetés (or achetées: obs. the difference). 
9. Il exige que vous acceptiez cet argent. 10. Il regrettait 
qwils eussent parlé. 11. La maison fut bdtie. 12. Les maisons 
ont été bdties. 13. On a exigé que cet argent (cette perle) fat 
rendu (rendue). 14. On ordonna qu’il fat puni. 15. Nous 
serions aimés (or aimées), si nous étions bons (or bonnes). 


76, 77.) VERBS. XLV 


16. J’appréhende que ma malle ne (verbs of fear require 
an expletive ne when affirmative) soit perdwe.—17. Mon 
cousin est arrive. 


b. — Conjugate in full aimer with avoir [compound present: 
jai aimé, etc.] and étre [passive present: je suis aimé (or 
aimée), etc. |.— Translate: 1. He has loved her sister; he has 
loved her. 2. She is punished by (par) her father. 3. Her 
eyes will be cured. 4. Have they lost their brothers? Yes, 
they have lost them. 5. Their beautiful horses are lost. 
6. Would you have protected his sister? Yes, I would have 
protected her. 7. I was desiring that he might answer. 8. I 
should have bought glasses and bottles if I had had money. 
9. They have eaten a piece of meat and a slice of bread. 
10. This trunk would be sold if 3 were (indic.) good. 
11. They apprehend that their books are lost (cf. sentence 
16, under a). 12. I regret that you have thought so (ainsi). 


INTERROGATIVE CONSTRUCTION. 


77. A subject pronoun is connected by a hyphen to the 
verb (e.g. ai-je? ‘have 1?’), but a subject noun is placed 
before the verb and a corresponding personal pronoun is ap- 
pended after it (e.g. L’arbre rompt-il? ‘does the tree break?’ 
Votre mére est-elle malade? ‘is your mother sick?’). The 
auxiliary ‘do (does, etc.)’ is not rendered in French. 

Nore 1.— Before the appended je a final -e becomes 6 (e.g. 
Aimé-je? ‘do I love ?’), and before i or elle, a -f- is inserted 
after a vowel (e.g. Aime-t-il? ‘does he love?’ A-t-il? ‘has he?’). 

Nort 2.— Instead of the regular interrogative construction, 
it is quite common to introduce the question by placing the 
phrase est-ce que (pr. ’s’k*) ‘is it that’ before the pronoun 
(or noun) and the verb. Especially common is this construc- 
tion in questions implying surprise or denial. — Est-ce que 
jaime? ‘doT love?’ Est-ce qwil est aimé? ‘is he loved ?’ 


XLVI FIRST PART. [78, 79. 


NEGATIVE CONSTRUCTION. 


78. The negation ‘not’ is with a verb usually expressed by 
two particles, viz. ne and pas (or, more emphatically, po/né). 
Ne (n’ bef. vowel or h ‘mute’), very rarely lacking, is placed 
before the personal verb-form or a preceding object-pronoun. 
Pas or point, in certain cases omitted, are placed immediately 
after the personal verb-form. — Ex. : 


Je ne suis pas malade. IT am not sick. 
Je naime point cet enfant. I do not love this child. 
Je nai pas fini mon theme. I have not finished my theme. 
Je ne le lui donnerai pas | 
(point). I shall not give it to him. 


Notre 1.— As seen above, the negative auxiliary ‘do’ is not 
expressed in French (i.e. ‘I do not love’ is rendered simply by 
‘I love not’: Je n’aime pas). 

Nore 2.— Usually both negatives precede a simple infini- 
tive (ne pas aimer, etc.). 


79. Among other negatives, the following may be noticed 
here : — 


ne... jamais ‘never’ ne... gue ‘only’ 
ne... plus ‘no more’ ne... rien ‘nothing’ 
ne... guere ‘not much, ne... personne ‘nobody’ 
scarcely ’ 
These are arranged like ne... pas, except that que, per- 


sonne follow a participle, and that only ne plus, ne rien are 
allowed to precede a simple infinitive (cf. 78, note 2). — Ex. : 


Il ne perd jamais. He never loses. 
Je n’y penserai plus. I shall think of it no more. 
Je nai guere d'argent. I have scarcely any money. 


Ii ne m’a donné gu’une fleur. He has given me only a flower. 
Je désire ne plus parler (or ne 
parler plus). I wish to speak no more. 


79.J | VERBS. XLVI 


‘Neither . . . nor’ is usually expressed by 
ne ‘neither’ . . . ni ne ‘nor’ — with simple tenses ; 
ne... ni (arranged = ne... pas) ‘neither’... nf ‘nor’ 
— with compound tenses. 


Ex. : — 
Il ne pense ni ne parle. He neither thinks nor speaks. 
Il n’a ni pensé ni parle. He neither thought nor spoke. 


EXERCISE XXII (a, 0). 


Masc. Fem. 

_ le temps ‘the time’ une position ‘a position’ 

un temple‘atemple’ .. . . wne église ‘a church’ 

le chemin ‘the road’ . . . . la route ‘the route, road’ 

le mont ‘the mount, hill’. . . la montagne ‘the mountain’ 
montrer ‘show’; préférer ‘prefer’ 
ouvert ‘open’; ict ‘here’ 

Verbs requiring the subjunctive, but only when a doubt or 
uncertainty is implied (i.e. generally when they are used nega- 
tively, interrogatively, or with si ‘if’) :— 

penser ‘think, espérer ‘hope, déclarer ‘declare.’ 


a.—1. Est-ce gue je vous donne de belles fleurs? 2. Swis- 
je aimé? 3. Sera-t-elle préférée? 4. Sa seur est-elle punie? 
5. Les fleurs ne sont-elles pas ici? 6. Ii ne parle pas (or 
point). 7. Vous ne m’en avez pas parlé. 8. Il ne punit jamais 
ses enfants. 9. Vous ne m’avez jamais montré cette église. 
10. Il ne parle plus de cette montagne. 11. Votre ami n’a-t-il 
que ce cheval-la? 12. Jene pense pas qwil punisse son enfant. 
13. Espérez-vous que votre fille guérisse? 14. Je wespérais 
point qwil me défendit. 15. Si vous déclarez que ce garcon 
est bon, je Vaccepte. 16. Il n’entend ni ne répond. 17. Je ne 
pense ni mespere qwil vende sa maison. 18. Il ne ma ni 
entendu ni appelé. 19. N’aviezvous ni pensé, ni espéré 
quelle guérit? 20, J’espére que j’aurai le temps, 


XLVIIT FIRST PART. [79, 80. 


6b.—1. Do you love her? I do not love her, and I shall not 

love her. 2. Has he accepted this book? He has not accepted 
it. 3. Does my sister speak (cf. Ex. 4,a)? 4. Will the road be 
long? 5. He does not show me his books. 6. She has not 
shown me her books, and she has not shown them to you. 
7. This church is never open. 8. This route is no longer 
open. 9. He speaks only of this beautiful mountain. 10. He 
neither thinks nor acts; he has neither thought nor acted. 
11. My father has ordered me not to (de ne point: 78, note 2) 
speak of this man; my father has ordered me to speak of this 
man no more (cf. 79, Ex. 5). 


REFLEXIVE VERBS. 


80. Verbs are construed reflexively with the reflexive object- 
pronouns me ‘myself’ or ‘to (for) myself, te ‘thyself,’ etc., 
se ‘himself, herself, itself, nous ‘ ourselves,’ vous ‘ yourselves 
(yourself),’ etc., se ‘themselves, etc. (cf. 47). —In compound 
tenses, reflexive verbs always take the auxiliary 6tre, to be 
rendered by ‘ have.’ — Thus: 


PRESENT IND. 
je me flatte ‘I flatter myself’ 
tu te flattes ‘thou flatterest thyself’ _ 
il se flatte ‘he flatters himself ’ 
nous nous flattons ‘we flatter ourselves ’ 
vous vous flattez ‘you flatter yourselves (or -self) ’ 


ils se flattent ‘they flatter themselves,’ 
ete. 


COMP. PRESENT IND. 
je me suis flatté (or flattée) ‘I have flattered myself ’ 
tu tes flatté (-e) ‘thou hast flattered thyself’ 

il s’est flatté ‘he has flattered himself,’ ete. 


Nore 1.— Before vowel or h mute me, te, se become m’, t’, s’. 


Nore 2.— The place of the reflexive pronoun is before the verb, except 
with an affirmative imperative, when it is appended to it by a hyphen (me. 
te being changed to moi, toi). Cf, 44. 


80, 81.] VERBS. XLIX 


Nore 3.—In compound tenses the past participle is treated 
precisely as if the auxiliary were avo/r, not étre (cf. 75).— 
Ex. elle s’est flattée ‘she has flattered herself,’ is se sont jlattés 
‘they have flattered themselves’; but elle s’est donné un coup, 
‘she gave herself (ind. obj.) a stroke.’ 


81. Many verbs are used reflexively in French when not so 
used in English. Such verbs are generally to be translated 
intransitively or passively. Thus: i s’arréte ‘he stops,’ i s’ap- 
proche ‘he approaches or is approaching,’ i se trompe ‘he is 


mistaken,’ etc. 
ExercisE XXIII (a, d). 


sarréter ‘stop’ _s’écrier ‘cry out’ s’approcher (de) ‘approach * 
se coucher se tromper * se douter (de) ‘suspect’ 

‘go to bed’ ‘be mistaken’ 
se lever ‘rise’ s’amuser ‘ amuse se défier (de) ‘distrust’ 


(enjoy) o. s.’ 
se porter ‘be (in respect to health)’ 
Je me porte bien ‘I am well’ 
Comment vous portez-vous? ‘How are you?’ 
hier ‘yesterday,’ aujourd’hui ‘to-day ’; encore ‘yet’ 


a.—1. Lhomme s’arréta. 2. Elle s’est couchée. 3. Je me 
suis levé d cing heures. 4. Ma seur s’est beaucoup amusée dans 
la ville. 5. L’armée s’approcha de la ville. 6. Ils se sont défiés 
de vous. 7. Je me doutais de sa conduite. 8. Comment vous 
portez-vous? 9. Je ne me porte pas trés-bien. 10. A quelle 
heure vous étes-vous couchée hier, ma scur? 11. Je me suis 
couchée & neuf heures, et je me suis levee aujour@hui a cing 
heures et quart. 12. Arréte-toi; arrétez-vous. 13. Approche- 
toi, mon enfant, ne te défie pas de moi. 


6b. —1. Conjugate throughout se flatter and se réjouir. 2. I 
am well, but my brother is not well. 3. My brother had 
stopped when you called him, but my sister had not stopped. 
4. Do you not enjoy yourself? 5. This child suspects every- 
thing. 6. These women have been mistaken. 


L FIRST PART. . [82-84. 


B. Irregular Verbs, 


(@- A full treatment of the irregular verbs would simply defeat the 
purpose of this brief introduction, which is to enable the student to 
begin reading at the earliest practicable moment with a fair knowledge 
of the prominent features of the French grammar. It has seemed best, 
therefore, to describe here only a few of the most common and represent- 
ative of the irregular verbs, or enough to help the student in determining 
irregular forms, and to consult or study, at any moment, the detailed 
‘exposition in Part Second, § 161; and then to add, for reference, an 
alphabetical list of such forms of other irregular verbs as may cause the 
learner some difficulty. 


82. Tue IRREGULAR VERBs, as already noted (65), consist 
of some verbs in -er, -/r, -re — altogether about 70 primary 
verbs; and of all verbs in -o/r (16 primary). 


83. PRINCIPAL PARTS. — Five forms, the infinitive, present 
participle, past participle, present indicative, and preterit in- 
dicative, are called the principal parts of a French verb, 
because all other verb-forms can be derived from them accord- 
ing to certain rules, which for the regular verbs are without 
exception. For the irregular verbs they are much less so, | 
But usually it is sufficient to know the principal parts of an 
irregular verb in order to make, or at least recognize, any 
other form. 


[84.] The principal and derivable forms of aimer (which may 
serve as a model for all other verbs) are those described below: 


a Bee Fes jcimer-al (i.e. add -ai after 1). 
cond. j’aimer-ais (i.e. add -ais after r). 
_ant J Pi: Subj. faim-e (i.e. substitute e- for -ant). 
impf. ind. j’aim-a/s (i.e. sub. -ais for -ant). 
3. Past part. aimé: compound tenses, j’ai aimé, ete. 
4. Pr, ind. j’aime: imp’ve aime. 
5. Pret. ind. /’aimai: impf. subj. j’aima-sse (i.e. add -sse to the 
stem: cf. note below). 


bo 


. Pr. part. aim 


Pee 


84, 85.] 


VERBS. 


LI 


Notr.— The plural of the pres. ind. is always from the pres. part. 
(aim-ons, fin-iss-ons, romp-ons). The -sse of the impf. subj. is added to the 
pret. stems aima-, fini-, rompi- (always found in 2d sing.). 


Compare with the above the principal parts of the irregular 


verb partir ‘depart’ :— 
Ls Ene, partir | 


2. Pr. part. part-ant * , 


fut. partir-a/. 
cond. partir-ais. 
pr. subj. je part-e. 
impf. ind. je part-ais. 


3. Past part. parti: compound tenses, j'ai (or je suis) parti. 
4, Pr. ind. je pars f: pr. ind. je pars, tu pars, il part; (pl. from 
pr. part.) nous part-ons, vous partez, ils partent.— Imp’ve 


pars, partons, partez. 


5. Pret. ind. je partis: impf. subj. je parti-sse. 


85. Learn the principal parts of the following ten verbs 


(irregular parts in heavy type) : — 


INF. 


Partir 
depart 
Sentir 
feel 
Souffrir 
suffer 
Offrir 
offer 
Vétir 
clothe 
Mettre 
put 
Ecrire 
write 
Lire 
read 
Vivre 
live 
Craindre 
fear 


Pr. Part. 


partant 
sentant 
souffrant 
offrant 
vétant 
mettant 
écrivant 
lisant 


vivant 


craignant 


Past Part. 


parti 
senti 
souffert 
offert 
vétu 
mis 
écrit 

lu 

vécu 


craint 


Pres. Inp. 


Je pars 
je sens 
je souffre 
j offre 

Je véts 
je mets 

j &cris 

je lis 

je vis 


je crains 


Pret. Inp. 


je partis 
je sentis 
je souffris 
j offris 

Je vétis 
je mis 

j écrivis 
je lus 

je vecus 


je craignis 





* Instead of partissant (cf. finissant). 


+ Instead of partis (cf. finis). 


LII * “PIRST: BART. [85. 


Each tense of these verbs is conjugated regularly, observing 
that the plural of the present indicative is formed from the 
present participle (by substituting, as usual, the personal end- 
ings -ons, -ez, -ent for -ant). Hence: Pr. je pars, tu pars, il 
part, nous partons, vous partez, ils partent ; je souffre, tu souf- 
Sres, il souffre, nous souffrons, etc. —je crains, tu crains, il 
craint, nous craignons, vous craignez, ils craignent ; — and so on. 


Exercise XXIV (a, b). 
demain ‘to-morrow’; lorsque (lorsqu’) ‘when’; sur ‘upon’ 
Notr.— Craindre ‘fear’ requires the subjunctive after gue. When 


used itself without ne, it generally requires an expletive ne before the 
subjunctive. — Ex. Je crains quil ne parle “I fear he may speak.’ _ 


a. — Conjugate throughout all the verbs given under 85. 

b. —Translate: 1. Jl part; i partit hier; je ne pensais 
pas quvil partit. 2. Nous partons aujour@hui; i désire que 
nous partions demain; nous partions lorsqwil arriva; partons ! 
3. Il sent que vous Vaimez, et je désire qwil le sente; vous le 
(it) sentez; vous le sentites; je nespérais point que vous le 
sentissiez. 4. S’il part, je souffrirai beaucoup ; je lui offrirais 
de Vargent si jen avais. 5. Il met son livre sur la table; il le 
mit sur la table ; je défends qwil ly mette,; je défendis qwil Vy 
mit. 6. Ils écrivent,; je souhaite qwils écrivent; ils écriront de- 
main; tls écrivaient lorsque jarrivai; ils écriraient ils avatent 
des plumes; il ordonna quwils écrivissent. 7. Il vit encore; 
il vécut,; je priais Dieu qwil vécht; nous vivons encore; nous 
vivions & ce temps; j’appréhende que nous ne vivions pas. 
8. Je crains qwil ne parte; je ne crains pas qwil parte; ne crai- 
gnez pas qwil parte ; craignez-vous qwil ne parte? vous craigniez 
qwil wécrivit; je désire que vous ne le craigniez point; vous ne 
craindrez pas; s'il souffrait, vous craindriez. 9. Mon frére a 
beaucoup souffert, et il est encore souffrant. 10. Une bonne 
position lui (m.) est offerte. 11. La lettre est écrite, je lai 
écrite moi-méme. 12. Il craint que vous ne lisiez sa lettre. 
13, Craignant que vous narriviez point, nous sommes partis. 


86.] 


VERBS. 


LItt 


86. Aller ‘go,’ venir ‘come,’ tenir ‘hold, dire ‘say, faire 
‘make, do.’ — The conjugation of these five very common 
verbs is as follows (irregular parts in heavy type) :— 


INF. 


Aller 
F. 
jirai 
Cc. 
j irais 


Venir 
F. 
je viendrai 
0. 
je viendrais 


Pr. Part. 


allant 
Pr. 8. 
jaille 
tu ailles 
il aille 
nous allions 
vous alliez 
ils aillent 
Ipf. I. 
j allais 


venant 
Pr. 8. 
je vienne 
tu viennes 
il vienne 
nous venions 
vous veniez 
ils viennent 
Ipf. I. 
je venais 


Past Part. 


allé 


je suis allé 
etc. 


yenu 


je suis venu 
etc. 


Pr. Inn. 
je vais 

tu vas 

il va 

nous allons 

vous allez 

ils vont 

Ip’ve 

va 

allons 

allez 


je viens * 
tu viens 
il vient 
nous venons 
vous venez 
ils viennent 

Ip’ve 

viens 
venons 
venez 


Tenir precisely like venir ; so also devenir. 


Dire 
F. 
je dirat 
Cc. 
je dirais 


disant 
Pr. 8. 
je dise 
Ipf. I. 
je disais 


dit 


je dis 

tu dis 

ul dit 

nous disons 

vous dites 

ils disent 
Ip’ve 

dis 

disons 

dites 


Pret. Inp. 
jallat 


Ipf. 8. 
j allasse 


je vins 

tu vins 

il vint 

nous vinmes 
vous vintes 
ils vinrent 

Ipf. 8. 
je vinsse 


je dis 
Ipf. 8. 
je disse 





* Pronounce vién (like bien). 


LIV FIRST PART. [86, 87. 


InF. Pr. Parr. Past Parr. Pr. Inn. Pret. Inp. 
Faire faisant * fait je fais je tis 
F. Pr. 8. tu fais Ipf. 8. 
ferai fasse al fait je fisse 
C. Ipf. I. nous faisons 
ferais Saisais * vous faites 
ils font 
Ip’ve 
fais 
faisons 
Saites 


EXERCISE XXV (a, b). 3 
s’en aller ‘go away’ (obs. the use of se and en ‘away ’); de ‘to,’ 


a. — Conjugate throughout all the tenses of aller, venir, tenir, 
dire, and faire. 


6. — Translate: 1. Je vais chez M. Adam. 2. Mes fréres n’iront 
pas chez leur cousin ; ils traient s’ils avaient le temps. 3. J’espere 
quwil ira chez son cousin; je nvespéere point qwil yaille. 4.-Ils 
allérent & Paris. 5. Il exige que vous veniez ; si vous veniez il 
viendrait aussi; il vient ; il viendra, elle est venue; ordonnez 
qwelle vienne. 6. Elle tient la rose a la main; ma niece 
tiendra la rose. 7. Vous dites qwil viendra ,; dites-lui de venir ; 
elle désire que je le dise; mon pére me dit qwil viendra (vien- 
drait); disant cela il s’enalla. 8. Il s’enva; il s’en ira; je sou- 
haite qwil s’en aille. 9. Il demande que nous nous en allions ; 
pensez-vous que ma seur s’en aille? 10. Va-t’en (‘get thee 
hence, go away’); allez-vous-en. 11. Elle s’en est allée. 12. 
Que fait le garcon? je le ferai venir; fordonne qwil le fasse ; 
Saites-le venir. 


87. VERBS IN -o/r. — Verbs in -oir, though not conjugated 
‘precisely alike, have some principles in common. As model 





* Pronounce far- like fe- here and in derivations. 


87-89.] VERBS. LV 


for them all may serve recevoir ‘receive,’ which has been de- 
scribed already under 67. Its principal and derived parts are 
here repeated : . 


Inf. Pr. Part. Past Parr. Pr. Inn. Pret. Inp. 


Recevoir recevant regu = jeregois _— je recus 
F. Pr. 8. tu regois Ipf. 8. 
je recevr-ai je recoive j'ai regu —_—il recoit Je recusse 
Cc. tu recoives etc. nous recevons 
je receyr-ais il regoive vous recevez 
nous recevions ils recoivent 
vous receviez Ip’ve 
tls regoivent recois 
Ipf. recevons 
je recevais recevez 


Nore. — Like recevoir are conjugated, as already noticed, 
other verbs in -cevoir (concevoir ‘conceive,’ decevoir ‘deceive,’ 
etc.). — Also devoir ‘owe, ought,’ except that its past parti- 
ciple (mase. sing.) is d@ (i.e. it has the circumflex, to distin- 
guish it from du = de le). Hence: devoir, devant, da (f. due), 
je dois, je dus. 


[88.] All verbs in -oir (savoir ‘know’ excepted) form, like 
recevoir, their 1st and 2d pl. present indicative from the pres- 
ent participle; and they all (save powrvoir ‘ provide’) drop, 
like recevoir, their oi in the future and conditional, some slight 
change of the root attending this loss (e.g. voir ‘see’: fut. 
verr-ai; pouvoir ‘be able’: pourr-ai; savoir ‘know’: saur-at; 
valoir ‘be worth’: vaudr-ai; vouloir ‘wish’: voudr-at). 

Other irregularities cannot be conveniently classified. 


89. Below are given six of the most common verbs in -oir, 
viz. : devoir ‘owe, ought,’ voir ‘ see,’ pouvoir ‘be able, can, may,’ 
‘ savoir ‘know,’ vouloir ‘wish, will, fal/loir ‘be necessary ’ (im- 
personal). — Tenses left unconjugated are regular. 


LVI 


INF. 
Devoir 
F. 
je devrait 
C. 
je devrais 


Voir 
F. 
verrai 
Cc 
verrais 


Pouvoir 
F. 
je pourrai 
C. 
je pourrais 


Savoir 
F. 
je saurai 
Cc. 
je saurais 


FIRST PART. 


Pr. Part. Past Part. 


devant da 
Pr. 8. 

je doive 
Ipf. I. 

je devais 


voyant 

Pr. 8. 

je voie 

tu vojes 

il voje 

nous voyions 

vous voylez 

ils vofent 
Tpf. I. 

je voyais 


UU 


pouvant 
Pr. 8. 
je puisse 
tu puisses 
etc. 
Ipf. I. 
je pouvais 


pu 


sachant su 
Pr. 8. 
sache 
etc. 
Tpf. I. 
je savais 


Pr. INp. 
je dois 
ete. 
(like regois) 


je vois 

tu vois 

al voit 

nous voyons 

vous voyez 

ils voient 
Ip’ve 

vois 

voyons 

voyez 


(89. 


Pret. Inp. 


je dus 


Tpf. 8. 
je dusse 


je vis 
Ipf. 8. 
je visse 


je peux (puis) je pus 


tu peux 

il peut 

nous pouvons 
vous pouvez 
ils peuvent 


je sais 

tu sais 

il sait 

nous SaVONS 

vous SAVER 

ils savent 
Ip’ve 

sache 


Ipf. 8. 
je pusse 


je sus 
Ipf. 8. 
susse 


89.] VERBS. LVU 
InF. Pr. Part. Past Part. Pr. Inn. Pret. Inp. 
Vouloir voulant voulu je veux je voulus 
F, Pr. 8. tu veux Ipf. 8. 
je voudrai Je veuille al veut je voulusse 
C. tu veuilles nous voulons 
je voudrais al veuille vous voulez 
nous voulions tls veulent 
vous vouliez Ip’ve 
ils veuillent veuillez ‘ please 
Tpf. I. 
je voulais 
Falloir * wanting fallu i faut il fallut 
F. Pr. 8. Ipf. 8. 
il faudra a faille il fallit 
Cc. Ipf. I. 
il faudrait il fallait 


EXERCISE XXVI (a, b). 


Nore 1.—Vouloir ‘wish’ and falloir ‘be necessary’ require the subjunc- 
tive after que. Also savoir requires the subjunctive after gue, but only 
when doubt or uncertainty is implied (i.e. frequently when it is used 
negatively, interrogatively, or with sz). 

Nore 2.— We say I1 faut qu’il vienne (‘It is necessary that he come’) 
or I/ lui faut venir (‘It is necessary for him to come’), both expressions 
= ‘He must come.’ But only Jl faut que mon frére vienne ‘My brother 
must come.’ That is, two constructions are allowed when the subject is 
a pronoun, but only one when it is a noun. 


a. — Conjugate throughout recevoir, devoir, pouvoir, savoir, 
and vouloir. 


6. — Translate: 1. Mon oncle recoit une lettre; jespere qu’ il 


recevra une lettre ; espérez-vous qu’il recoive une lettre? 2. Nous 


recevons trois dollars; nous recevions dix dollars par semaine ; 
i veut que nous recevions deux dollars par jour; nous rechmes 
cet argent hier. 3. Je sais que vous devez venir; je ne pense 
pas que vous deviez venir ; ils devraient (‘they ought’) venir ; 





* Impersonal verb (used only in 3d person sing.). 


LVIII FIRST PART. (89, 90. 


je ne pensais pas qwils dussent venir. 4. Il voit la maison ; 
il voyait briler la maison ; il vit s’arréter quelqwun,; je voulais 
quil vit ma niece; il me verra demain; il me verratt s’il venait. 
5. Je peux voir cet arbre-la; je ne puis (or je ne peux pas) le 
voir ; je ne savais pas que vous pussiez le voir; je pourrat 
vous voir demain; ils peuvent venir sils veulent. 6. Je désire 
qwil le (it) sache; je sais qwil le saura; je savais qwil le sait ; 
savez-vous votre lecon? sache (sachez) qwil faut venir. 7. Il 
veut que vous parliez ; il voulait que vous parlassiez ; je ne veux 
pas qwil me voie, ils voulurent vous voir ; ils voudront vous parler ; 
ils voudraient qwil le vit; on ne sait pas qwil le veuille (or veut, 
if que = ‘the fact that’); veuillez venir demain. 8. Il faut que 
vous parliez, or il vous faut parler; il faut que mon frére vous 
parle; il fallait venir; il faudrait venir, sil le désirait; il a 
fallu qwil vint, or il lui a fallu venir; i leur fallait venir, 
or il fallait qwils vinssent ; il faut nous en aller, or il faut que 
nous nous en allions. 


90. ALPHABETICAL List oF OTHER IRREGULAR Forms. — Below is given, 
for reference only, an alphabetical list of such common forms of other 
(simple) irregular verbs as may cause the learner some difficulty in read- 
ing, until he has become familiar with the irregular verbs, as described 
under § 161, Part II. Forms easily inferred from those given are omitted 
(thus, especially, it must be remembered that the Ist and 2d pl. of the 
pres. ind. are usually made from the pres. part., and that irregular verbs 
in -ir never have a stem in -iss, like jinir). 





acquerrai Fut. ; : bois Pr. I. : 
acquiers Pr. I. fs i aelae boive Pr. S. jor bile 
acquis Past P. or Pret. acquire. boivent 8 pl. Pr. I or S. drink, 
asseyant Pr. P. bous Pr. I. of bouillir ‘ boil.’ 
asseyerat ' Fut. bu Past P. 

assiérat , of asseoir bus Pret. hot boire ‘ drink.’ 
asseyant Pr. P. ‘seat.’ buvant Pr. P. 

assieds Pr. I. ceignant Pr. P. 

assis Past P. or Pret. J ceignis Pret. fos ceindre ‘ gird.’ 
atteignant Pr. P. , ceint Past P. 

atteignis Pret. jor bala 

atteint Past P. 5 get 


90.] 


connais Pr. I. 

connaissant Pr. P. | of connaitre 
connu Past P. ‘know.’ 
connus Pret. 

construisant-Pr. P. of construire 
construisis Pret. ‘construe.’ 
contraignant Pr. P. 
contraignis Pret. 
contraint Past P. 

(or 3s. Pr. I.) 
courais (reg.) Ipf. I. 
courrai Fut. 
couru Past P. 
courus Pret. 
cousant Pr. S. 
cousis Pret. 
cousu Past P. 
craignant Pr. P. 
eraignis Pret. 
craint Past P. 

(or 3s. Pr. 1.) 
crois Pr. I. of croire ‘believe.’ 
crois Pr. I. 
croissant Pr. P. 
croyant Pr. P. 
cru Past P. 
cri Past P. 
cris Pret. 
cueille Pr. I. or 8. 
cueillerai Fut. 
cuis Pr. I. 
cuisant Pr. P. 
cuisis Pret. 
cuit Past P. or 3s. Pr. I. 
dors Pr. I. or dormir ‘sleep,’ 
-duis Pr. I. 
-duisant Pr. P. 
-duisis Pret. 
-duit Past P. 


of contraindre 
‘ constrain.’ 


of courir 
‘run.’ 


fo coudre ‘ sew.’ 


of craindre ‘ fear.’ 


of croitre ‘ grow.’ 
of crore ‘ believe.’ 
' of croitre ‘ grow.’ 


of cueillir ‘cull.’ 
of cuire 


‘boil.’ 


of verbs in -duire 
‘lead.’ 


VERBS. 


LIX 


écrivant Pr. P. 
écrivis Pret. 
énverrai Fut. of envoyer ‘send.’ 
éteignant Pr. P. 
éteignis Pret. 
éteint Past P. 
(or 3s. Pr. I.) 
feignant Pr. P. 
Jfeignis Pret. 
feint Past P. 
(or 3s. Pr. I.) 
hais Pr. I. of hair ‘ hate.’ 
joignant Pr. P. 
joignis Pret. 
joint Past P. 
(or3s. Pr. 8.) 
lis Pr. I. 
lisant Pr. P| of lire ‘ read.’ 
lu Past P. 
lui Past P. 
luis Pr. I. 
luisant Pr. P. 
luisis Pret. 
mens Pr. I. of mentir ‘ lie.’ 
meurs Pr, I. 
meure P. 8. 
meus Pr. I. 
meuve Pr. 8. 
mort Past P. of mourir ‘ die.’ 
moulant Pr. P. 
moulu Past P. fos moudre * grind. 
moulus Pret. 
mourrai Fut. 
mourus Pret. 
mu Past P. 
mus Pret. 
nais Pr. I. 
naissant Pr. P. 
naquis Pret. 
né Past P. 


of écrire ‘ write.’ 


of éteindre 
‘ extinguish.’ 


of feindre ‘ feign.’ 


of joindre ‘ join,’ 


of luire ‘ shine.’ 


of mourir ‘ die.’ 


of mouvoir ‘ move.’ 


of mourir ‘ die.’ 


of mouvoir ‘ move.’ 


of naitre ‘be born.’ 


LX 


nui Past P. 
nuis Pr. I. 
nuisant Pr. P. 
nuisis Pret. 
parais Pr. I. 
paraissant Pr. P. 
paru Past P. 
parus Pret. 
peignant Pr. P. 
peignis Pret. 
peint Past P. 
(or 3 s. Pr. 8.) 
plaignant Pr. P. 
plaignis Pret. 
plaint Past P. 
(or 3s. Pr. I.) 
plaisant Pr. P. 
platt 3s. Pr. I. 
pleut 3s. P. I. 
1. plu Past P. 
2. plu Past P. 
plus Pret. 
plut 3s. Pret. of pleuvoir ‘rain’ 
or plaire ‘ please.’ 
prenant Pr. P. ! 


of nuire ‘hurt.’ - 


of paraitre 
‘appear.’ 


of peindre ‘ paint.’ 


of plaindre ‘ pity,’ 
(se) ‘ complain.’ 


of plaire ‘ please.’ 
of pleuvoir ‘ rain.’ 


of plaire ‘ please.’ 


of prendre 


renne Pr. S. 
coe ‘ take.’ 


pris Past P. or Pret. 
repens Pr. I. of repentir ‘ repent.’ 


" Past P. \ of rire ‘laugh.’ 
ris Pr. I. or Pret. 


FIRST PART. 


90. 


sens Pr. I. of sentir ‘ feel.’ 

sers Pr. I. of servir ‘ serve.’ 
sors Pr. I. of sortir ‘ go out.’ 
-solvant Pr. | 


-solu Past P of verbs in -soudre 


-solus Pret. “ROANE,’ 

suffi Past P. 

suffis Pret. jos suffire ‘ suffice.’ 
suffisant Pr. P. 


1. suis Pr. I. of étre ‘be.’ 
2. suis Prot, 
suivant Pr. P. 
suivi Past P. 
suivis Pret. 


taisant Pr. P. 


of suivre ‘ follow.’ 


of (se) taire 


tu (or tu) Past P. ihe ailonk? 


tus Pret. 

vaille Pr. 8. 4 
valant Pr. P. 

valu Past P. 

valus Pret. 

vaudrat Fut. 

vaux (8. vaut) Pr. I. J 
vécu Past P. 
vécus Pret. 
véts Pr. I. of vétir ‘clothe.’ 
1. vis Pr. I. of vivre ‘ live.’ 
2. vis Pret. of voir ‘ see.’ 


of valoir 
‘be worth.’ 





of vivre ‘ live.’ 


Nore. — Verbs in -aitre retain the circumflex only where 7 is followed 


by ¢ (parait, but parais). 


91-93.] INDECLINABLES. LXI 


INDECLINABLES. 


As all indeclinables (i.e. adverbs, etc.) are found directly in 
the dictionaries, little need here be said about them. 


ADVERBS. 


91. Adverbs are either: a. single, as ici ‘here,’ ou ‘ where,’ 
en ‘in,’ quand ‘when,’ déja ‘already,’ bien ‘well, etc.; or, 0d. 
adverb-phrases like @ présent ‘at present,’ & peu prés ‘nearly,’ 
a peine ‘hardly,’ tout a fait ‘entirely,’ tout d coup ‘suddenly,’ ete. 


Norts. — Most adjectives can be converted into adverbs by adding the 
suffix -ment to the feminine form, or to the masculine if terminating in a 


vowel. — Ex. : 
fort ‘strong’: fortement ‘ strongly’ 


grand ‘ great’: grandement ‘ greatly’ 
franc ‘frank’: franchement ‘ frankly ’ 


long ‘long’:- longuement ‘ lengthily’ 
facile ‘easy’: facilement ‘ easily’ 
vrai ‘ true’: vraiment ‘ truly ’ 


joli ‘pretty’: joliment ‘ prettily ’ 


92. ComPARISON. — Adverbs capable of comparison (espe- 
cially those derived from adjectives) are compared, like adjec- 
tives, by the aid of plus or moins. Only the following four 
are in this respect irregular, viz. : — 


bien ‘ well’ mieux ‘ better’ le mieuz ‘best’ 

mal ‘ bad(ly) ’ pis ‘ worse’ le pis ‘ worst’ 

beaucoup ‘much’ plus ‘more’ le plus ‘most’ 

peu ‘little’ moins ‘less’ le moins ‘least’ 
PREPOSITIONS. 


93. Prepositions, like adverbs, are either: a. single, as 
a& ‘to, de ‘from,’ par ‘through,’ contre ‘against,’ etc. ; or, 


LXII FIRST PART. [93-95. 


b. prepositional phrases like @ travers ‘across,’ afin de ‘in order 
to,’ jusqu’a ‘as far as,’ ete. 


Nore 1.— The use of prepositions is often different in French and 
English: cf. penser @ ‘think of’; acheter a ‘buy from’; de toutes parts ‘ on 
all sides’; de bonne heure ‘in good time, early’; agir en honnéte homme 
‘act like an honest man’; and so on. Often, also, French requires a prep- 
osition where English does not, and vice versa: cf. plaire @ ‘ please,’ obéir a 
‘obey’; écouter ‘listen to,’ sonner quelqu’un ‘ ring for some-one,’ etc. 

Notre 2.— As in English, an infinitive is used with or without a prepo- 
sition. To the English infinitive-sign ‘to’ correspond in French @ or de. 
De is used especially before a subject-infinitive placed after its verb, and 
before an object-infinitive when an idea of separation or source is implied. 
Ex. J] est imprudent de parler (but Parler est imprudent : subject-infinitive 
without preposition when heading a clause). Jl s’abstient de parler ‘ He 
abstains from talking.’ J/ lui défend de parler ‘ He forbids him to speak.’ 


CoNJUNCTIONS. 


94. The conjunctions are likewise either: a. single, as et 
‘and,’ mais ‘but,’ que ‘that,’ si ‘if,’ etc.; or, 6. conjunctional 
phrases like avant que ‘before,’ pendant que ‘ while,’ parce que 


‘because,’ ete. 
INTERJECTIONS. 


95. Simple interjections are ah ‘ah,’ 6 or oh ‘oh,’ hélas ‘alas,’ 
bon ‘good,’ etc. A few interjectional phrases, like en avant 
‘forward,’ a la bonne heure ‘very well,’ etc., also occur. 


ExeEeRcIsE XX VIL. 


ADVERBS : - 
bien ‘well’ toujours ‘always’ 
ailleurs ‘ elsewhere ’ surtout ‘especially ’ 
partout ‘everywhere ’ FSranchement ‘ frankly ’ 
bas ‘in a low tone’ doucement ‘ gently ’ 
haut ‘aloud’ longuement ‘lengthily ’ 
tét, bientdt ‘soon’ & présent ‘at present’ 


quelquefois ‘sometimes ’ a peine ‘hardly ” 


95.] » INDECLINABLES. LXIIT 


& peu prés ‘nearly ’ sur-le-champ ‘on the spot, 

& bon marché ‘cheaply ’ immediately ’ 

en bas ‘ below’ tout a& coup ‘ suddenly ’ 

en haut ‘above’ tout a fait ‘entirely ’ 

du tout ‘at all’ tout de suite ‘immediately ’ 

peut-étre ‘perhaps’ ausst, st ‘as, SO’ 
PREPOSITIONS: 

apres ‘after ’ a travers ‘across, through’ 

avant ‘before’ (in time) @apres ‘according to’ 

devant ‘ before’ (in position) jusqu’a ‘even to’ 

derriére ‘behind ’ autour de ‘around ’ 

sows ‘under’ hors de ‘out of’ 

sur ‘upon’ pres de ‘near’ 


chez ‘at or to the house of, with, among’ 


CONJUNCTIONS 
(those spaced requiring the subjunctive): 


car ‘for’ afin que ‘in order that’ 
comme ‘as’ avant que ‘before’ 
lorsque ‘when’ bien que ‘although’ 
quoique ‘although ’ sans que ‘ without that ’ 
puisque ‘since’ pour que ‘in order that’ 


Nore. — Adverbs usually follow the personal verb-form; but adverbs 
of specialized time (as aujourd’hut, hier, demain) follow a participle. Ex. 
Il parle toujours de vous. Il m’a toujours aimé. II est venu hier. 


1. Mon frére écrit bien, mais ma sceur écrit beaucoup mieux. 


2. Il lui a parlé tres franchement. 3. Nous sommes tout a fait 


eh ae 


contents & présent. 4. Ne voulez-vous pas venir tout de suite chez 
mon pere? 5. De quot cet homme vous a-t-il parlé si longuement ? 
6. Nous parlerons plus doucement si veus le voulez. 7. Il me 
répondit tout & coup. 8. A peine y a-t-il cent personnes dans 
Péglise. 9. J’ai peu de livres, mais il en a moins. 10, Je sais 


LXIV FIRST PART. * (95. 


que mon ami lui a donné a peu prés deux cents dollars. 11. Le 
livre était derriére la table. 12. Il viendra avant quatre heures. 
13. Il allait devant moi, et elle venait apres. 14. Il est hors 
de la ville. 15. J’irai jusqwda Véglise. 16. J’y étais lorsqwil 
arriva. 17. Quoiquw’elle soit bonne elle nest pas aimée. 18. Je 
viendrati puisque vous le voulez. 19. Je lui at écrit afin qwil 
(pour qwil) vienne. 20. Bien que je le (it) sache je ne le dirai 
point. 21. Il vint avant quelle fat venue. 


INDEX TO PART I. 


§ 
Oe With fee 3oc cs 15 
Wf Sigtia as 2 23 93.2 
accent-signs ....... 1 
accent-stress....... 3 
acute accent....... 1 
adjectives ..... 26 etc 
agreement (X. 1). 
place: Ex. X. 2. 
ROVOIOE ook sire ees 91 
place (Ex. XXVI). 
TE SRR Sp a eS 25 
ee) ) 23-4 
MN es cig ue Owes 86 
alphabet .......... 1 
MOAI ie k vad ws ec 's 73 
SONI a isa oa ue dat 82 
bon, comp. ......... 36 
MCI o's cas osu vs 37 
inflect’n ......... 39 
for ordinals...... 40 
RNIN oc c)a Sat a sig 4 1 
_ cent, no art....... 38.1 
' circumflex......... 1 
| Ps Ss 25 
- comparison : 
oes 35 
MON eye bisa 3 92 


compound tenses... 74 
conjugation 65-8 





peel sail hs 
S 
conjunctions....... 94 
consonants: pron... 16 
contraction ........ 15 
de with le ......54: 15 
partitive ..... 18-20 
Bea GiGT SS as 4's. 93.2 
def. article, see /e. 
demonstratives ...50-1 
oO eee ek ree 89 
GITORIG os kas e's ds 1 
diphthongs ........ 7 
GONE aa Ae Ie oes 59 


e, 6, change in verbs, 69 


GHOO suo. 5 12. n. 
en, pron. part...... 46 
CUE, COD S: 6.c5 6s sno 78 

with neut. v...... 76 
JAC, COM}. 6 5 sisi 05's’ 86 
feminine : 

nouns, Ex. V. 

adject’s ...... 26-33 
gender: 

nouns: Ex. V, XI. 

adject’s...... 26-38 
generic article ..... 13 
grave acc’'t......-, 1 





§ 
indef. article....... 14 
indefinites......... 60 
interrogatives...... 52 
interrog. constr’n. 77-9 
interjections....... 95 


irregular verbs. 82 ete. 


ee ee neha Pie be 
with de,a@...... Pane | 
gener. art... ess 16 
in part. constr.... 18 
spec’] use Ex. XI. 2. 
lequel, inter. ...... . 52 
TRIBE awoke aon 57 
MARIO 6 o0 ss es ee esa: 
mauvais, Comp...... 36 
mille, no art....... 38.1 
monophthongs..... 6 
nasal vowels....... 9 
BERKS conicanaeeanne 78 
(Ex. XVIII. 1.) 
neg. constr’n...... ak te 
DOUNG sss s.s6 e's« 21 ete. 
WE oe ee owas 3 
NUMETRS 6s hee 37 
Geil, THE) sais din diate «Mie 25 
OUP=VOTDE: sooi'vis,® dais « 87 
FERC Legs SUN RUT 61 


LXVI 
§ 
OPdiIna le: sao 8545 37 
re RSPR acy are 39 
part. article ..... 18-9 
preposition ...... 20 


past participle, 75, 80.3 
pers. pronouns... .41-5 


PETSONNE os seccoees 62 
WEL, COD. vies oo 65 36 
plural: 
ROUUES Fert ccs» 21-5 
BOOT Beas coisas 34 
possessives ...... 48-9 





INDEX TO PART I. 


§ 
POUVOEE Boar cn eines 89 
prepositions ....... 97 
present, Ex. XIII. 1. 
principal parts..... 83 
pron. particles..... 46 
GQUANTIEY. 6. ..0 os ees 4 
G08 t AOEN S acs 2 3s 52 
POIDE C icla he 0 oe 56 
quot: interr...... 52-4 
THAR cu cases vas 56 
reflexives.......... 47 
reflexive verbs... 80-1 





savoir 
subjunctive : 
Ex. XIX, XXI-XXyV, 


syllabication ....... 2 
tOUG rs ives ane 60, 64 
VOR ssc vgiv tenes eels 86 
VOIDS. ic Seas 65 
poulotr:.6.€i 00 shen 89 
vowels: pronunc’n, 

4 ete. 
y, pron. part. ...... 46 


PART IL. 
METHODICAL PRESENTATION OF FRENCH 
GRAMMAR 


WITH 


HISTORICAL INTRODUCTIONS, VERSIFICATION, AND 
SKETCH OF THE RELATION OF FRENCH AND 
ANGLO-FRENCH WORDS 


(CaLcULATED FoR Two TERms, or Luss) 


TERE ee BF 
Be EE a ae aR 





aaa hr 


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 





Frencu, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Rhzeto - Romanic 
(spoken in southern Switzerland), and Rumanian (or Walla- 
chian, spoken in northern Turkey) constitute a group of lan- 
guages that have sprung from popular Latin, and which are 
therefore called Romance or Romanic (i.e. ‘ Roman’), or Neo- 
Latin (‘ New-Latin ’). 

The development of the French language from Latin under 
the accessory influence of various other tongues may be briefly 
sketched as follows. 

From the time that Gaul began to be conquered by the 
Romans during the last two centuries before our era, Roman 
soldiers aad colonists brought vulgar Latin (lingua romana 
rustica), and government officials literary Latin (sermo urba- 
nus), into the subdued country. Aided in its spread by the 
superior culture of its speakers and the iron system of Roman 
colonization, perhaps also by the resemblance between the old 
Celtic and the Latin, the latter tongue in a few centuries 
almost wholly obliterated the native idioms of the conquered 
barbarians, the Celtic in middle or northern Gaul, and the 
Basque, which seems to have been the language of southern 
Gaul (Aquitania) ; and these idioms have left but slight traces 
in French. . 

The inroads and conquests of Germanic tribes — Franks, 
Goths, Burgundians,—in the 5th century, brought the Teu- 


tonic form of speech into Gaul and in contact with the 


4 SECOND PART. 


Romanic. The Teutonic dialects (called by a common name 
lingua theodisca) succeeded in holding their own for a long 
time alongside of the Romanie (lingua romana), until, finally, 
they were merged into it, bequeathing it, however, a consider- 
able number of Germanic words romanized, many of which 
have survived in modern French. 

‘The struggle between literary and vulgar Latin was also 
gradually, with the decline of Rome and her influence in 
Gaul, decided in favor of the latter, which meanwhile was 
suffering more or less important dialectical changes. 

This Gallo-Romanic idiom early branched into two leading, 
though nowise homogeneous, families of dialects : the southern, 
called the langue d’oc (as expressing ‘yes’ by oc’) or Pro- 
vencal (as spoken in the Roman ‘ provincia,’ i.e. Provence), and 
the northern, called the langue d’oil (as expressing ‘yes’ by 
oil? = French oui), or now usually Old French. 

The southern idiom gave rise to an early literature, which 
shone with extraordinary splendor during the 11th and 12th 
centuries — the age of the troubadours,—and then perished 
with the political independence of southern France. 

The northern idiom consisted of several sub-dialects, of 
which that one spoken in the province of Ile-de-France, favored 
by political circumstances and the fostering influence of the 
University of Paris or the Sorbonne, gradually took precedence 
of all the others, until, in the 14th century, it became the 
national language of united France, or Modern French. And 
by a series of later modifications, especially lexical and syntac- 
tical, the language of the 14th century has developed into the 
French of the present day. 





1 Oc from Lat. hoc. 

2 Oil of disputed origin, probably for o (Lat. hoc) + il, the personal 
pronoun being repeated in answers (0 je, o il, ete.), and z/ gradually sup- 
planting the others. [Cf. Kuhns Zeitschr. III. 428, 1877.] 


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 5 


To the above sketch should be added that French, like 
English, has borrowed a considerable part of its present vocab- 
ulary from outside languages, especially from Latin, Greek, 
Italian, Spanish, and English. Indeed, the influx of Classical 
Latin words, ever since the 11th century, but especially after 
the time of the Renaissance, has been so large that they 
actually vie in number with the words derived from popular 
Latin. “From these, however, they are, for the most part, 
clearly distinguished by not adhering to the laws of phonetic 
change, as briefly sketched under 1 (next page). 

There will follow hereafter, under appropriate heads, a 
general survey of those sweeping changes of form, inflection, 
and syntax which the French language has suffered during its 
long course of development from Latin — changes consisting 
chiefly in the mutation of words and the variation of sounds, 
in an almost absolute suppression of case-forms, synthetical 
forms of comparison, and passive-forms, in the evolution of 
new words and verb-forms, and in the adoption of a rigid 
system of syntactical arrangement. 


6. SECOND PART. [i. 


iF 


ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 


[l. HISTORY. —In their gradual transition to modern French, Latin 
words have suffered many modifications, as briefly outlined below. 

I. Vowets.— A. The accent-vowel of Latin words has (with few ex- 
ceptions) survived as such in French, though often modified in form: e.g. 
L. partem (usually the Lat. accusative has given the French noun-form, 
ef. 47): F. part; vincere : vaincre ; bonitatem: bonté. It received a different 
form according as it was a. free (libre, ending a syllable) or b. tied 
(entravée, followed by two consonants, one belonging to it). Thus: 

a. When free, 7, 7, and also 6 + nasal, were, as a rule, unaltered in 
writing : e.g. ami-cus : ami ; li-na : lu-ne; b6-na : bonne. Other vowels changed 
(often into diphthongs, now prevailingly uttered as a monophthong). This 
change was either (1) direct, or (2) caused by nels POrne sounds. — 
(1) Direct change: 


Lat. FR. 

a =6, , e; (exceptionally a, before /); e.g. L. sanita-tem - F. santé ; pa- 
trem: pere; ama-re: aimer; ma-lum: mal. 

é, 7 =0/ (or, by later change, a/) : e.g. cre-dit: croit ; vi-det - voit ; habé-bat ; 
old avo/t, now avait (so all imperfects, by analogy). . 

€é =/e: e.g. pé-dem: pied. 

6,i7= eu (also written, to denote origin or otherwise, @u, ueu, @, ue); e&.g. 
lorem : fleur; nd-vem: neuf; gu-lam: gueule; bo-vem: boeuf. 

au; eu=o; jeu; e.g. aurum: or; deum: dieu. 


(2) Palatal, labial, or nasal influence:— Palatals (c, g,/; or 
i, e+ vowel) changed a preceding or following vowel, or both, into a diph- 
thong containing the parasitic palatal / [viz. d+ pal. = ai; é,%+ pal. with 
lorn=ei; 6,%i+pal.—oi; 6+ pal.—wi; pal.+a=ié]; or directly to / 
[viz. &+ pal.=7; pal. é, t=7]: e.g. pacem + paix; habeo: ai; solic(u)lum 
(of sol): soleil; vocem: voix; ndceat: nuise; pacare: payer (= pai-ier) ; 
décem: dix; cera: cire.— The labial u sometimes gave a labial shading to 
a preceding vowel : e.g. clavum: clou ; habunt (popular form) : ont. —Nasals: 
before nasals @=a/; 6, =e (0/); u=o0: e.g. amas: aimes; lana: 
laine; sinum.: sein; siimus: sommes. They also produced nasal vowels. 

b. When tied, the accent-vowel was usually unchanged. Exceptions: 


as ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. o % 


i =e (mit-tit: met); 6, t=ou (cor-tem: cour; dii-b’tare: douter) ; 6, 7+ 
palatal = oj (tec-tum; toit), or ej, as when free (fingam: feigne) ; 6+ pal. 
=u (noc-tem; nuit). Here belongs also the frequent change of / after 
a vowel to uw: e.g. al-ter: au-tre; cabal-los ; chevaux; fol-lem + fou. 

B. Accentless vowels usually survived in the initial syllable or when 
tied, being then treated, on the whole, like accent-vowels, except for a 
tendency, in the former case, of retaining a (ha-bere: avoir), and of chang- 
ing especially é, 7, 6,.%7 into e ‘mute,’ cf. 14 (/évare: lever; mj-nare : 
mener). Otherwise they were usually — after the tone-syllable always — 
lost or, in case of a, and of other vowels to avoid harsh combinations, 
dimmed to e ‘mute’: e.g. partem: part; lana: laine; vincere: vaincre. 

II. Consonants were often lost or changed. Thus: 

A. Loss:—a. Initial sc(h)-, st-, sp-, early changed to esc-, est-, esp-, were 
farther often reduced to éc-, ét-, ép- (e.g. schola, older escole, now école ; 
stabat: était). So also Latin ex- (es-) was often reduced to é (exclusam: 
écluse). —b. Medials were often lost after vowel (patrem: pére). The loss 
of s was then usually indicated by a circumflex (costam: céte).— Finals 
were less often lost in writing than utterance (22); m disappeared in both. 

B. Change. Here may be noted the frequent change of ¢ to d (ors); 
of p, b to 6 orv; of c (+ Lat. a) toch; of i, e,9, ore to f (g); of stoz; 
and of n+ palatal to gn —the last four sounds peculiar to French (26). — 
After s, n, m, r, / a mute was usually inserted before r,/ (mol’re: moudre). 

III. Cxasstcay Latin Worps borrowed into French received, somewhat 
arbitrarily, French endings, and also, irrelative of the Latin accentuation, 
final accent; but they yielded only slowly or in part to the transforming 
tendencies of French. Hence, contrary to popular words, they are more 
faithful to the form than to the accent of the Latin word: cf. L. fragilem, 
mobilem: F. (borr.) fragile, mobile; (pop.) fréle (older fraile), meuble. ] 


2. NOTATION OF SOUNDsS.— The elementary sounds of 
the French language are denoted by the letters constituting 
its alphabet, and by the use of various subsidiary signs or 
devices. These letters and signs are described below, before 
the subject of pronunciation proper. 


3. ALPHABET. — The French alphabet contains exactly the 
same written letters as the English. 
’ Nore 1.—The older and more common names of the French letters 


are in French denoted as follows: a, bé, cé, dé, &, effe, gé, ache (h), i, ji, 
ka, elle, emme, enne, 0, pé, ku, erre, esse, té, u, vé, double vé, ics, i grec, zede. 


Br SECOND PART. [3-7. 


A more modern practice, especially in spelling out words, is to pro- 
nounce e as e ‘mute’ (cf. 14), the other vowels as above, and each con- 
sonant with an e ‘mute’ added to its proper sound in any given case [be, 
ke or ce, de, fe, ghe or je (23), he, etc.]. 

Notr 2.—k and w occur only in foreign words ; and y is rarely a real 
vowel, except in words borrowed from the Greek. 


4. SUBSIDIARY SIGNS OR DEvices. — These are: 


[5.] Accent-marks.— French has three accent-marks, none 
of them, however, serving to denote the accent-stress of the 
word (about which cf. 10). Their rather mixed functions are 
as follows: 

a. The acute (~) and the grave (*) are almost entirely 
phonetic signs, used, the former to denote a close sound, as 
in épée * (cf. 14: é), and the latter an open, as in mére (14). 

Nortr. — In a few cases the grave accent serves to distinguish homo- 
nyms: e.g. @ ‘to’: a ‘has’; ou ‘where’: ou ‘or’; la ‘there,’ la ‘the’; dés 
‘since’: des ‘ of the, some.’ 

b. The circumflex (*) most often denotes some etymological 
contraction, or loss of a letter (especially s), and is lable to 
occur over any vowel. The vowel on which it rests is usually 
long. — Ex. dge (formerly aage), tle ‘isle’; cdte ‘coast’; brdaler 
(older brusler) ‘ burn.’ 

Norr. — Even the circumflex sometimes serves to distinguish homo- 
nyms: e.g. di ‘due’: du ‘of the, some’; croés ‘grow(est): crois ‘ be- 
lieve(st)’; ert ‘grown’: cru ‘ believed.’ 

[6.] Dieresis.—T'wo dots (‘*), called dizresis, ‘separation- 
mark,’ is used over e, i, u to denote that these vowels are in 
pronunciation held apart from a preceding vowel. — Ex. Noél 
(= no-el), hair (= ha-ir), aigué (= aigu-e). 


[7.] Cedilla (“small z,” formerly z, now ,) is a sign placed 
under c, when that letter has before a, 0, wu the sound of s. — 
Ex. ca (formerly written cza). 





* Silent letters will in this chapter be printed with roman type. 


ee as ee 


a4 


8~11.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. ie. 


[8.] By a combination of letters, various simple sounds (monoph- 
thongs, nasal vowels, etc.) are also denoted. These sounds and their signs 
are all described hereafter. 


9. SYLLABICATION. — A single medial consonant (save a 
and y) or consonant digraph (ch, ph, th, nasal gn) belongs 
to the following vowel: e.g. fe-ra, é-pe-lé, a-che-té, al-pha-bet ; 
but ex-il.— Of two or more medial consonants only the last 
or, if that be a liquid (7, 7) preceded by one that is not a 
liquid, the last two, belong to the following vowel: e.g. trom- 
per, af-fec-té, symp-téme, par-ler, al-lez; a-pres, sa-bre, trem- 
ble-ment. 

Nore 1.—In pronunciation, silent h is left out of account: e.g. bo-nheur 
(written bon-heur). 


Nore 2.— Compound words are for the most part divided according to 
their elements: e.g. in-spirer. 


ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 


10. ACCENT-sTRESs. —In French a slight prominence (ac- 
cent) is given to the last sonorous vowel of a single word: 
e.g. parlé, salade, opinion, probabilité. 

This prominence, consisting in a raised pitch or increased 
emphasis, or in both, is too weak to dim, like the strong 
English accent, surrounding syllables. Hence all syllables of 
a French word, save those in e ‘mute,’ are uttered with equal 
distinctness. 


Note 1.— Authorities are not all agreed as to the nature of the French 
accent; and occasional deviations from the rule, as stated above, may be 
heard. 

Nore 2.— Sentence-accent. Usually the last word of each statement 
receives alone the accent, when the speaker does not intentionally em- 
phasize, instead, some other word.—Ex. J’ai acheté la salade ‘I have 
bought the salad’; L’honneur le demande ‘ Honor demands it.’ 


11. QuANTITY. — The distinction between long and short 
vowels is in French not very marked, and, in part, uncertain 


10 SECOND PART. ' [l1-14. 


or arbitrary, the usage of every-day speech often deviating 
from theoretical laws. As a general rule, the distinction of 
quantity is more marked in accented than in unaccented syl- 
lables, and the vowel long chiefly when it has the circumflex 
(e.g. @me), and when it is followed by e ‘mute’ (bye), or sepa- 
rated from it by some protractable sonant consonant (page, 
base, pere, table). 

While the learner must here rely mainly on oral instruction, 
a few details are given below. 


[12.] The vowel is usually long: 

a. When it has the circumflex: e.g. dme, féte, evéque, mat. (Rarely it is 
short, as in auméne, hétel.) 

b. Directly before e ‘mute’: e.g. lue, jolie, joue. 

c. When separated from a following vowel, especially e ‘mute,’ by a 
sonant g, s, or z (e.g. page, tige, base, elise, gaze), or by ror rr (e.g. pere, 
guerre), or by two dissimilar consonants of which the first is a nasal or the 
second r, / (e.g. jambe, crainte; sabre, table, cadavre). 

d. In final syllables before (silent) s, x, z, or before an audible r- 
e.g. expres, as, assez, prix, augur, fier ‘proud’ (but /i-ér ‘rely’), air, perd. 


[13.] In connected discourse the quantity suffers various changes, ac- 
cording to the emphasis employed by the speaker. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


14. SIMPLE VOWELS (not combined with other yowels). — 
Their pronunciation is as described below. : 


- [@> In the pronunciation of vowels both quantity (about which cf. 11) 
and quality are to be considered. In describing the quality below, the 
quantity is not left out of sight. The relation between the two is not 
always fixed, and nothing but a long practice can teach the student to 
observe that relation. —In comparing English and French vowel-sounds, 
it must be borne in mind that the French never have the ‘ vanish,’ which 
often accompanies the English when long. 


a (d, a) has two slightly different sounds: 1. nearly that of a 


in English ‘father’ (not quite so deep); 2. more open, ap- 
proaching that of a in ‘at, @ in Webster’s ask representing 


————KS— OO 


14.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 11 


the sound quite well. The former occurs when a is long, 
except before two consonants. — Ex. (1) dme, base, bdt, dge ; 
— (2) carnaval, patie, table, tdcher, la. 


e has a different value according as it ends a syllable (as in 
le, fe-ra) or not (les, fer-ma). Thus (cf. 9): 


1. -@ CLOSING A SYLLABLE (or constituting one) is some- 
what inconsistently called “e mute” (French “e muet”). 
As a general rule (cf. note 1, 2) it is silent, or practically so, 
only at the end of words of two or more syllables: e.g. cape, 
dme, salade, tasse; and when it constitutes a syllable by it- 
self: aboi-e-ment. Otherwise it approaches in sound e in ‘err,’ 
being uttered rapidly and with a closer, rounded aperture of 
the lips (= Germ. 6): e.g. le, me, se, fe-ra, pe-sant, d-pre-té. 


Note 1.— At the end of polysyllabics -e is not entirely silent when pre- 
ceded by two consonant-sounds belonging to the same syllable (i.e. by dr, 
bi, etc.: cf. 9). It has then a slight tinge of the e-sound in /e: e.g. sa-bre, 
sa-ble, ora-cle, ca-dre. By emphasis this sound is heard also in other cases. 

Note 2.— Within a word, except in the initial syllables, -e is often 
slipped over or dimmed, unless a harsh sound should be the result: e.g. 
re-te-nir, de-ve-nir, re-ve-nu; but @-pre-té. 

Nore 3.—In connected discourse, euphony and emphasis may cause 
some deviation from above rules. Thus, especially, e is suppressed or 
slighted in one or more of successive monosyllables in e (e.g. je ne le puis. 
c’est ce que je dis). Finale of polysyllabics in -ble, etc., is entirely silent 
before a vowel (e.g. oracle ancien). On the treatment of e mute in verse, 
ef. 423. 


2. @- NOT CLOSING A SYLLABLE sounds like e in ‘ere’ (French 


2) before an audible consonant, and also before silent s or t; but 


nearly like e in ‘they’ (Fr. é) before silent consonants, except 
s and ¢.— Ex. (= 2) bref, fer-ma, des-pote, ver-re; es, les, est, 
promets ;— (= é) pied, parler, nez, clef. 

Nore 1.— Et ‘and’ is pronounced ¢. 

Note 2.— Final -es of polysyllabics, and -ent of 3d plural of verbs are 


treated as if simply -e ‘mute.’ E.g. ames, tables, donnent, parlent.. (Cf., 
however, 28.) 


12 : SECOND PART. [14. 


Note 3.— Before a double consonant (usually pronounced as simple) 
e often sounds like ¢. Cf. essayer = é-sayer ; but dresser = dré-ser ; ennemi= 
é-ne-mt. 

Nore 4.— Followed by a double nasal, e sounds like French short a in 
femme (pron. fam) ‘woman,’ nenni ‘no indeed,’ hennir ‘neigh,’ solennel 
‘solemn,’ and in ail adverbs terminating in -emment (e.g. violemment, etc.). 

Nore 5.— Followed by ss, e sounds like e ‘mute’ in dessous (= de-sou) 
‘under,’ dessus ‘above,’ and in most words beginning with ress- (ressembler, 
etc.). In these words the first s is only an inorganic insertion serving to 
denote that the following s has a hissing sound (dessous for de sous and so on). 

Note 6.— Concerning the orthographic. use of e to make g a spirant, 
cf. 23 g. 


éssounds almost like e in ‘they’ (= e in Germ. mehr), but it 
is usually short and sharp, except before e mute. — Ex. (long) 
donnée, crées ; — (short and sharp) donné, créer, dé, vérité, 
célébrité. 


8, 6 when long have almost the sound of e in ‘ere’ or of et in 
‘heir’ (= @ in Germ. mdhre), and when short of e in ‘let.’ 
— Ex. (long) mere, these, trapeze, fete, étre ;— (short) achéte, 
bréve, procede. 


i (t) y have the sound of ¢ in ‘police,’ though long or short 
according to quality. — Ex. (long) mise, tle, abime, hydre, 
amie ;— (short) cri, fil, limite; style, type, ami. 


o, (6) has a rather closer sound than o ‘no,’ chiefly when long ; 
or a more open, approaching that of o in ‘ not’ (= o in Germ. 
soll), chiefly when short. — Ex. (close) rose, tréne, ndtre, gros ; 
— (open) sol, sotte, porter. 


u (2): The sound of this vowel (= Germ. i) has no equivalent 
in English. It is a changed Latin u-sound in the direction 
of 7, and is produced by trying to utter ~ as in ‘true’ with 
the tongue in the ee-position, as in ‘tree.’ — Ex. (long) rue, 
ruse, flate, pur ;— (short) butte, minute, bu. 


About the use of u as an orthographical sign, cf. 23, under g. 





15.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 13 


15. MONOPHTHONGS.— A simple vowel-sound is in French 
often written with two, or even three, vowel-signs (relics of 
once independent vowels). Such monophthongs — never be- 
ginning with 7, wu or y—are those described below. 


ai (ai), ef (et), are pronounced like 2, long or short; but final 
-ai in verbs like é.— Ex. (long) baise, maitre, ferais, aie, 
vraie ; seigle, reitre, reine; — (short) aimer, faites, fait, vrai, 
peiner; — (= 6) ferat, ai, allai (all verb-forms). 


Nore 1.—In derivative forms of faire ‘do,’ the radical vowel (a/) of 
this verb, if followed by a fully pronounced syllable, is pronounced (as it 
was once written) like e ‘mute.’ Ex. faisait (= fe-sait), bienfaisance, etc. 


ay, ey are monophthongs only when not followed by a vowel, a case which 
rarely occurs except in a few proper names and foreign words. They 
then sound like ai, ei. — Ex. Corday, Ney. 


Note. —In pays ‘country,’ and its derivatives paysan (f. paysanne) 
‘peasant,’ paysage ‘landscape,’ ay is pronounced as if av-t. 


au, eau have the sound of the closer French 0 ; exceptionally 
of open o (chiefly before /, r, or re). — Ex. (long) pause, 
pauvre, maux, faut; eau, beau, beaucoup;—(open) Paul, 
restaure, centaure. 


eu (et), eu usually have when long a closer sound than e in 
‘err’ (= Germ. 6); but when short the open sound of e in 
‘err.’ — Ex. (close and usually long) creuse, jeudi, deux, 
veux, monsieur; veux, boeufs;— (open and usually short) 
seul, jeune (but jedne with close e#, on account of the 
‘lengthening circumflex), peuple, veulent, leur, fleur, boeuf. 


Nore. — In forms of avoir ‘have,’ eu sounds like French u. — Ex. eu 
‘had,’ j’eus ‘I had,’ ete. 


eu (ot, o%) has the sound of 00 in ‘fool,’ though long or short. 


— Ex. (long) épouse, vodte, roue, love ; — (slightly shorter) 
rouler, doute, ou, louver. 


f, ue sound before i/(/) like eu. — Ex. wil (=eu’y), cueille (= keu’y). 


14 SECOND PART. [16, 17.- 


16. DIPHTHONGS AND DISSYLLABICS. — Combined vowels 
not coalescing into one sound form either a diphthong, when 
the first vowel-sound (i, 0, u, ow) glides over into the second 
before it is fully formed: e.g. fier = fier ‘ proud,’ nuit = ni 
‘night’; or a dissyllabic, when it is barely distinct enough to 
be counted as forming a syllable by itself: eg. jier = fté 
‘rely’; nuit = n”-i ‘hurts’; construtt. 

Notre.— Neither theory nor usage has definitely settled the limits 
between diphthongs and dissyllabics. The tendency is for the former to 
encroach upon the latter. It will be useful to remember, as covering a 
majority of cases, that 7 and uw terminating a French verb-root or root- 


derivative, or being preceded by a compound consonant, rarely form a 
diphthong with a following vowel (cf. examples above). 


[17.] The pronunciation of diphthongs and dissyllabies offers 
no difficulty, each constituent simple vowel or monophthong 
having its own sound (more or less fully enounced), except in 
the following cases : — 


ao = a in faon ‘fawn,’ paon ‘peacock’; and = 0 in aoriste, Saéne, taon 
(also taon) ‘ gadfly.’ 


ao@ = ou in aowt ‘ August (the month).’ 


o€ = French oi (below) in poéle ‘stove’ and poéle ‘frying-pan.’ 


of (ot). This diphthong has a sound that may be represented 
in French by “a, “a (nearly like wa- in English ‘ waft’). — 
Ex. (=G) poivre, joie, voir; — (“a) voiture, tournot, rot. 


Notre 1.— Concerning ot when nasalized by a following gn, cf. 23, 
under gn. 

Note 2.— In many forms, an older oi was in the last century altered 
to ai (e.g. foible: faible; lisoit: lisait; connoftre: connaitre). Where in 
such cases classical texts retain o7, it is now customary to pronounce it 
as ai.—For roide (or raide) ‘stiff, rigid’ and its derivatives the older 
spelling with the modern pronunciation is the prevailing, though not 
exclusive, practice. 


u + vowel or vowel combination (i.e. ua, ue, us, etc.) : 


: 
| 
| 


a 
Z 
F; 
& 
- 





17-19.] | ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 15 


a. Not preceded by g or g, wu forms with a following vowel 
(or vowel-combination) a diphthong ora dissyllabie (16), 
being pronounced in the former case almost like French ou, 
but in the latter more like French uv. — Ex. (diphthong) suave 
= save, Suede, suite, huile, lui. — (dissyllabic) lu-a, tu-ez, lu-eur. 

b. Preceded by g or g, wv in common French words of old 
stock (cf. note), serves as a mere graphic sign to denote that 
g and q sound like hard g (in ‘ go’) and k respectively. — Ex. 
fatiqua (= fatiga), guerre (= gér: g hard as in ‘ go’), fatigquer, 
anguille (= agiy: g hard), vigueur; quatre (= katr*), que, quel, 
qui, liquide, vainqueur. 

Nore. —In several, mostly modern, words borrowed from the Latin, 
u forms a diphthong with the following vowel, as it does also in English. 
This occurs for gu- chiefly in lingual (= lin-g“al), linguiste, aiguille, aiguiser ; 
arguer (argu-€; ue dissyllabic) ; and for qu- in about 160 words: e.g. most 
words containing guad- (quadrature, quadrupéde, quadruple, etc.) ; quintuple ; 


équateur, équestre ; requiem, ete) or? 


18. y between vowels (aye, oya, etc.) is equivalent to 
French /-y, of which 7 combines with its preceding vowel. — 
Ex. payer (= pal-yer), royal (= rof-yal), fuyard (= fui-yard). 

Norre.— After a,y is a mere consonant in proper names (Bayard, La 
Fayette, etc.), and in a few other words (bayer, etc). — According to Littré, 


there is a tendency to treat y as a mere consonant after any vowel, except 
a (e.g. royal = ro-yal, fuyard = fu-yard, etc.). 


19. NASAL VOwELS.— A single vowel or monopthong fol- 
lowed inthe same syllable by one nasal (n, m) is nasal- 
ized (i.e. uttered with the mouth-organs in their vowel-position, 
but with the air expelled at once through the mouth and nose), 


while n, m, lose their independent utterance. — Besides this 


nasalization, e, / (y), w—unless finals of a monophthong 
(15) — sound as if Fr. a, a/, eu respectively. 

The French nasal vowels have no English equivalents. Rep- 
resenting their nasality (nearest lke in Engl. ‘thank’) by 
the sign ~, we get the following French equivalents : 


16 SECOND PART. [19, 20. 


an, am ) ea (ay. Bx. (an, ruban, ambre 

en, em 5 rt en, enfant, tempéte 
in, im jin, mince, simple 
yn, ym | a - | syntaxe, nymphe 

ain, uim esi poulain, faim 
ein, eim J frein, peindre, Reims 
on, om = 6 (close 0). “ on, mouton, ombre 
un, um : = éu (close eu). tin, Mae humble 
eun, . jetin 

IAN (Y-an) “ — étudiant, effrayant 
i-en (cf. note) ) “client, orient, audience 
0-in = 0-0. “ coin, soins, poindre. 


ete. 


Nore 1.— In -jen (-yen) final or belonging to a verb-form, and in é-en 
final, -en sounds like -in (i.e. = dv). — Ex. bien (= bi-di), mien, vient (verb- 
form); moyen (= moi-ydi) ; — européen (= europé-ar). 

Nore 2.— Minor irregularities are as follows : — 

am-n, om-n are pronounced as d-n, 6-n (without nasalization) in damner 
‘damn,’ automne ‘autumn,’ and their derivatives. 

em-m, en-n are pronounced as d-m, d-n when em-, en- represent the prefix 
en (Lat. in), ie. nearly always in the beginning of a word (e.g. em-mener, 
en-nuyer, etc.); but like a-m, : -n (no nasalization of the vowel) in femme 
(= fam), etc., see under 4: e 2, note 4. 

ent of the 3d person plural of verbs, cf. 14: e 2, note 2. 

in- beginning a word is not nasalized before a vowel-sound, though 
treated as a syllable by itself (9, note 2).— Ex. inactif, inhumain. 

on is reduced to 0, or more commonly e, in monsieur (usually = me-cieu) 
‘sir,’ and it is not nasalized in bonheur ‘ happiness’ (cf. 9, note 1). 

About nasals in proper names, etc., see 24-5, 


CONSONANTS. 


20. GENERAL REMARK.— The French consonants are usu- 
ally pronounced like the English. But there are various excep- 
tions, however, as described below under 23.— The following 
preparatory remarks may be made here: — 








21-23.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 17 


[21.] Initial or medial consonants. — ¢ is the only consonant- 
sign peculiar to French; g, /, A, ch, and medial gn, i//, ti rep- 
resent, often or always, other sounds than in English. 


[22.] Final consonants are for the most part silent, except 
when in connected discourse they are sounded before a 
following initial vowel (for particulars cf. 23). Only e, f, /. - 
g, and r (except in -er, -ier of polysyllabics) are regularly 
pronounced even in disconnected words. 


23. SPECIAL RULES for the pronunciation of consonants 
are given below. 

(@- Compound final consonants are below given under the head of 
their /ast consonant.— Double consonants are sounded as one, unless a 


special exception is made (cf. cc, gg, below). 
6= English 6. As final it is heard in radoub, rumb. 


e has the sound of k, except before e, 7, y, where it is pro- 
nounced as s. Changed to ¢ (cf. 6), it has the sound of s even 
before a, 0, u. — Ex. cas, acte, lac, accabler ; — ce, céder, ciel ; — 


Ga, garcon. 
ce has the sound of g in second (= se-g6) and its derivatives. 
-c final is usually heard. It is silent after a nasal (blanc, etc.) ; after 
r in some words (clerc, mare, pore); and in estomac ‘stomach,’ tabac 
‘tobacco,’ croc ‘hook,’ coutchouc ‘india-rubber,’ and a few other less com- 
mon words. — In donc ‘then,’ it may be heard, especially when that word 
heads a sentence. 
ce before e, i, y = c-c. — Ex. accés (= ak-se). 
ch sounds 1. like ch (=sh) in ‘machine’; or 2. like ch (=k) 
in ‘chaos.’ — The latter sound, by far the less common, is 
heard, on the whole (except, usually, before ¢),in words whose 
English cognates have that sound (cf. chaos ‘chaos,’ Christ 
‘Christ,’ etc.). — Ex. (= sh) charme, chasse, chose, chaise, 
chuchoter, choux, chez, chien ; chimie (‘ chemistry ’), monarchie, 
architecte ;— (=k) chaos, écho, orchestre; Christ, chrétien 
(Christian’), technologie. 


18 _SECOND PART. [23. 


Before a consonant, ch is always=k. Before a vowel, it has the si- 
sound in words of Latin or Germanic origin, and also, by late change, in 
several words of Greek origin; while in most words of Greek origin it has 
the k-sound. 

Norr. — In archange ‘ arch-angel,’ ch is =k; in almanach it is mute ; 
and in drachme it is like g. 
d=Engl.d. As final it is heard in sud ‘ south,’ 


f=Engl./ As final it is heard, except only in clef ‘key,’ and in neuf 
‘nine,’ as adjective before a word beginning with a consonant (e.g. neuf 
jours ‘nine days’). 


Nor. — Irregularly, f of beuf‘ ox,’ auf ‘egg,’ nerf (or nerf) ‘ nerve,’ be- 
comes silent when the plural-sign is added (beufs, eufs, nerfs). F is also 
silent in chef-d’euvre, and in nerf de beuf. 


g has the hard sound of g in English ‘go,’ exept before e 
(eu), %, y, where it sounds as Fr. j (= 2 in ‘azure,’ forcibly 
enunciated). As final it is usually silent. — Ex. (= g) gant, 
gorge, gotter, gloire, chagrin ;—(= Fr. j) germe, gilet, gym- 
naste, léger, nageur ; — (silent) bourg, long.. 


ge gu + vowel.—'To give to g the fricative (=) sound even 
before a, 0, wu a silent e is inserted after it (e.g. nagea= 
na-zha); and vice versa, to give it a hard sound before e (ew), é, 
a silent w is inserted after it (e.g. guerre, as if gér, g as 
in ‘go’).—Ex. (=j) nagea, pigeon, gageure, mangea ;— 
(= hard g) guerre, guére, gueule, guitarre, figue. 

With regard to the combinations ge and gu before a vowel, it should be 
noticed: —a) in -geur eu is a monophthong (cf. nageur under g), while 
in -geure it consists of the silent (orthographical) e+ u of a suffix -ure 
(cf. gageure, above); —b) u of gu may in some words form a diphthong 
with the following vowel (cf. p. 15, b. note) ;—c) u is silent even before 
a, 0, u, if-it belongs to a verb in -guer (e.g. fatiguons from fatiguer). 

gg before e, i, u=g-g. — Ex. suggérer (= sug-géré). 

-g final is heard in joug ‘ yoke,’ zigzag, grog, pouding. 


gn between vowels (or 7 and a vowel) is softened to a pecu- 
liar sound resembling that of Engl. gn in ‘ cognac’ (= con-yac). 
But the n-sound is palatal (made with the back of the 





23.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 19 


tongue), and it blends with the following y-sound almost into 
one, the two coming near being a nasal y(7). — Ex. gagner 
(= ga-yé), agneau; craignit, saigne; indigne ; cigogne; soi- 
gneux (= soi-Jeu) ; répugner, épargner. 


Nore 1.— The exact French sound of gn can be learned only by hear. 
ing it. In Switzerland, gn sounds just like Engl. ny. 

Nore 2.—In oignon ‘onion,’ and more optionally in words beginning 
with poign- (poignard ‘ dagger,’ etc.) 7 is silent. 

Nore 3.—In certain modern words borrowed from Greek or Latin, gi 
is pronounced like g-n - agnat (= ag-na), cognition, stagnant, stagnation, etc. ; 
and g is silent in signet ‘ signet.’ 


h is now silent in French. Yet in many words of foreign, 
especially Germanic, origin, an initial h is still treated as 
when once pronounced (aspirated), in so far as it prevents 
the elision or linking (26) of a preceding word. Hence the 
necessity of distinguishing between h ‘mute’ and h ‘aspirate.’ 
— Ex. (‘mute’) hadit (habit, les habits), huile, exhorter ; — 
(‘aspirate ’) héros (le héros, les héros), harpe. 


Nore. — Generally / is ‘mute’ in words of Latin or Greek origin (e.g. 
homme, habit, héroine), but ‘aspirate’ in words of a different, chiefly 
Teutonic, origin (e.g. halle, harpe, haie, etc.).— Among exceptions 
should be noted especially : A, is ‘ aspirate’ in /Aéros (but not in its deriva- 
tives), and in some words with inorganic h, as haut (1. altus) and deriva- 
tives, hurler (L. ululare), haleter (L. halitare), as well as in hors (L. foras) ; 
in hwit and derivatives it prevents elision but not linking (cf. 27, note 1). 

In dictionaries, words beginning with an h ‘aspirate’ (about 340 against 
500 beginning with A ‘ mute’) are usually marked with some conventional 
sign, such as ‘, or *, or the like. 


j always sounds like z in English ‘azure,’ if enunciated with 
strong sonancy. — Ex. je, jeter, jour, jouir, juste. 

k = English k. It occurs only in foreign words. 

/ regularly sounds like English / (e.g. i, jiler, docile, aile = él, 
illustre). — 'The combinations i and il, however, are subject 
to the following rules : — 


20 SECOND PART. [23. 


-// final is usually (cf. note 2) regular, as in ‘until’ (Fr. 4), 
except after a vowel, where it simply denotes an y-sound (= y 
in ‘boy ’).— Ex. (regular) civil, avril (cf. note 1), exil; — 
(= y) bétail (= béti’y), vieil (= vie’y), deuil (= dewy). 


Notre 1.— Usage is not consistent with regard to the pronunciation of 
final -7/, unpreceded by a vowel. Though for the most part uttered as 
written, it may also be pronounced as -i’y or simply -i (thus Littré gives 
avril = avril, or avri’y or avri, péril= péri’y, ete.).—It is regularly =? in 
haril (= bari) ‘ barrel,’ chenil ‘ kennel,’ fuszl ‘gun,’ gentil (but before a vowel- 
sound = genti’y) ‘fine,’ outil ‘ tool,’ sourcil ‘ eyebrow,’ and a few other words, 
less common. 

Nore 2.—«@, ue before -i/ sound like Fr. eu (cf. 15).—Ex. aif fa 
eu'y), orgueil (= orgeu’y). 

-i//- medial is regular, as ‘ill’ (Fr. 7), in some words enum- 
erated below in note 1 (mile, ville, etc.). Usually, however, it 
denotes the sound 7’y, when preceded by a consonant (e.g. ji/le 
= f’y), or simply a y-sound, when preceded by a vowel (e.g. 
paille = pa’y). — Ex. (=ill) ville, mille ;— (= iy or y) fille, 
famille, billet, brillant ; paille, travailler, conseitla, vieille, feuille,. 
fouiller. 


Nore 1.— Medial -///- has its regular sound: a. in mille ‘thousand,’ 
mille ‘ mile,’ ville ‘ city, pupille ‘ward,’ tranquille ‘ tranquil,’ and in their 
derivatives; b. in trisyllabic words in -iller (e.g. distiller, scintiller, etc.), 
and their derivatives; c. in a few less common forms not enumerated 
above. 

Notr 2.—-il, -ill, are in parts of France (especially in the south) 
pronounced (7)/’y instead of (7)’y, as described above : e.g. bétail = bétal’y ; 
Jille = fil’y ; paille=pal’y. This older pronunciation is adhered to by cer- 
tain good authorities and in certain styles ; but it is much the less common. 

Note 3.— @, ue before -il/ sound like Fr. eu (ef. 15).— Ex. eillet (= 
ew’yé), cueillir (= keu’yir). 

[ History.— The varied pronunciation of ¢/(/) is owing to a varied origin 
of this combination of letters. When i/(/) has its regular sound, it gener- 
ally comes directly from Latin //(/).  E.g. mille (L. mille), tranquille (L. 
tranquillus). In other cases it represents a Latin -//i- (which naturally 
enough changed —like -ili- in Engl. million — to i’y, a pronunciation yet 
heard: cf. note 2), or -icu/- (= icl, ill, il’y or eil’y), or some other sound, 


ner 


23.) ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. SE 


Latin or not. E.g. jille (1h. jilia) lentille (L. lenticula), abeille (1. apicula), 
veiller (Lat. vigilare).] 
-/- is silent in fils (= jfiss) ‘son, and in the plural gent/Ishommes (in gentil- 
homme it sounds as y- cf. note 2 under -i/). Some authorities prefer /i/s = fi. 
-/ final is mute in cul ‘ backside,’ and sozl ‘ full.’ 


m, n not denoting a nasalized vowel (19), are pronounced as in 
English. 

p =English p. It is silent, however, in the initials lapt-, sculpt-, and 
usually in the combination mpt (e.g. bauptéme, sculpter, compter, etc. ; but 
exemption, redemption, etc.).— For -p, -ps, -pt final, cf. below. 

-p final is silent, except in cap.— About final -ps, -pt, etc., see under 

s and ¢. 

g forms with u a k-sound (cf. 17 under u + vowel). Alone it occurs oniy 
in cog ‘cock,’ and cing ‘five,’ where it sounds like k. (About cinq in 
combination, cf. 76.) 

ris more dental and more trilled than in English. It is always 
pronounced, except as stated below (-r).— Ex. ruse, grand, 
fier ; perd, concert, revers. 





-r final is heard in monosyllabics. Also in polysyllabies, 
except, usually (cf. note), those ending in -er, -ier, whose r (or 
rs, if plurals) is silent. — Ex. (heard) fer, mer, fier ‘proud’ 
(but ji-er ‘ rely’: cf. 16), fur, hier, honneur, pasteur, revoir ; 
— (silent) donner, arriver, boulanger (pl. boulangers), dernier 
(pl. derniers) , tapissier (pl. tapissiers). 


Nort. —-r final of polysyllabics is heard in amer ‘ bitter,’ cancer ‘ cancer,’ 
cuiller ‘ spoon,’ enfer ‘hell,’ éther ‘ether,’ hiver ‘winter’ (and ef. 20, 21). 


s has in French, as in English, two sounds: one sharp as in ‘so,’ 
one sonant as in ‘rose,’ but both more forcibly enounced than 
in English. Sonant s occurs between two vowels, and also 
between 7 or » and a vowel. — Ex. (sharp s), son, pasteur, 
respirer, observer (op-server), passer ; — (sonant s) rose, base, 
poser; misere; balsamique, transition. 


Usually s is not sonantized when it begins the second member of a com 
pound: e.g. entre-sol, parasol (para + sol), vraisemblable, 


22 SECOND PART, | (23. 


se before e, 7, y sounds like s.— Ex. scéne, science, scélérat, 
sceptique. 


-s final is mute, except in as ‘ace,’ bis ‘ twice,’ hélas ‘ alas,’ jadis ‘ for- 
merly,’ lis ‘lily’ (but silent in fleur-de-lis), mais ‘maize,’ vis ‘screw’; and 
generally in tous ‘all’ when pronoun. Cf. also below (-cs, etc.). 

-cs, -ds, -fs, etc. (i.e. final consonant + s) are silent, except in the follow- 
ing cases: —a. When s is the plural sign, a preceding consonant is heard, 
if heard in the singular (e.g. ac: pl. lacs, chef: pl. chefs; but cf. f note) 
—b. r of -rs is also heard, where s is not the regular plural-sign, except in 
volontiers ‘willingly’ (e.g. vers, envers).—c. fils ‘son’ is pronounced iss. 
—d. both consonants are heard in cens ‘census,’ sens ‘sense’; laps ‘ laps,’ 
forceps ‘forceps’; mars ‘ March,’ murs (also meurs) ‘ manners,’ ours (also 
ours) ‘bear.’ 


t has usually the sound of English ¢t But medial -#/- before 
vowel is pronounced like s’ (s sharp), — except after s (or 
x) and in some other cases, as explained below. — Ex. (= ¢) 
tu, jeter, tiéde; bestial, garantie, chrétien, moitié, entier ;— 
(ti = s') nation (= nd-s‘d), portion, patience, partial, initier 
(‘initiate’), prophétie, démocratie. 


Usually it will be found that -t/- has the si- sound, when in correspond- 
ing English words it sounds like sh, or is represented by ¢ (cf. ex. above). 

[ Historically ¢i sounds as si when it represents a popular Latin tz pro- 
nounced like ts/, hence not:—a. When it is preceded by s or x (e.g. 
question, mixtion), or was once preceded by s (chrétien ‘ Christian,’ ch@tier 
‘chastize’).— b. When 7 is the final of an inflected stem (e.g. parti-e, 
parti-ons).—c. When i belongs to one of the endings 7é (participles 
excepted), ter (infinitives excepted), tiere, tiers, tieme, in all of which ie 
is a diphthong of French origin (e.g. moitié, entier, entiére, volontiers).] 

- final is silent, except in brut ‘rough,’ chut ‘hush!’ dot ‘ portion,’ 
fat ‘fop(pish),’ huit, (cf. 88) ‘eight,’ net ‘neat’; and cf. below (-ct, -gt, ete.). 

-ct, -gt, -/t, -pt, -st final are treated as follews:—et, differently 
described by different authors, is mostly silent after a nasal (e.g. instinct), 
after ¢ (except in strict) and in the termination -spect (e.g. aspect), but 
sounded like kt elsewhere, ie. generally after a and e (e.g. tact, exact, 
correct, direct). —-gt is silent in doigt ‘finger’ and in vingt ‘twenty,’ in some 
of its uses (cf. 88). —-/t is silent. — -pt is silent after a nasal and sounded 
after a vowel, except in sept ‘seven,’ pronounced set (cf. 76: also septieme). 





23-25. ] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 23 


—-st is silent in est ‘is,’ but sounded in Christ (not in Jésus Christ), est 
‘east,’ and ouest ‘ west.’ 
th has the sound of simple ¢. — Ex. athée. 


vy sounds like English v; w, which is used only in foreign words, sounds 
like v, except after a vowel, where it generally has the value of u (New. 
york = Neu-york). 


x is pronounced like gz when initial, and in the prefix ez- fol 
lowed by a vowel-sound; but like ks in other cases. — Ex 
Xenophon, exil, echumer ; — excuse, fixe, Alexandre. 


-x final is silent. Only in six ‘six’ and diz ‘ten,’ when not used a» 
adjectives, it has the sound of ss. -X also has the same sound in soizrante 
‘sixty’ (and in some proper names, as Bru-elles, etc.).— Final -/z is silent. 


y. Concerning this letter, see 18. 


z sounds as in English ‘ gaze’ (e.g.azur). When final it is silent (e.g. nez), 
except in gaz, fez. 


24. PRONUNCIATION OF Proper Nouns. — The pronunciation of proper 
nouns is very irregular, and usage is not in all cases fixed. Only a few 
rules for the more common irregularities are here given. 

Proper names are pronounced according to the preceding rules, ob- 
serving : - 

A. As regards foreign names : — a. that any final consonant is likely to 
be sounded: e.g. Job, David, Esther, Jupiter, Gil Blas, Brutus, Suez (z=), 
etc.; — b. that final m and n, retaining their own sounds, do not nasalize a 
preceding vowel, and that a medial em and en sometimes sound like French 
in (ie. = ar): e.g. Abraham (= A-bra-d-me), Jérusalem, Elohim, Eden, (but 
am = @ in Adam); Benjamin, Memphis, etc.;—c. that ch usually sounds 
like k: e.g. Jéricho, Michel-Ange, etc. (but like Engl. sh in Michel, Achille, 
Archiméde, Eschyle = éshil, and some others). 

B. As regards French names: — a. that final s and st are heard in 
some words: e.g. Arras, Reims; Vaugelas, Agnés, Clovis, Médicis; Brest, 
Ernest, etc.;— b. that medial s before a consonant (especially /, m, n, t), 
and also final -/t, -/x are silent: e.g. Bas/e (now usually Bale), Maistre (also 
Maistre), Duguesclin ; Larochefoucault (but heard in Soult). 


25. FOREIGN WORDS WITH UNCHANGED ORTHOGRAPHY are usually pro- 
nounced as in the language from which they are borrowed. — Ex. album, 
triumvir, amen; Cromwell, whig (ou-iy), ete. 


24 SECOND PART. [26-28. 


JOINING OF WorDpbs. 


26. In the sentence, closely connected words are apt to be 
pronounced as one, : 

a. by elision (“cutting off”: both in utterance and writing) 
of a vowel that would occasion hiatus: e.g. lea=Va,; and 

b. by linking (in utterance, not in writing) the end-conson- 
ant of one word, whether otherwise pronounced or not, with 
the initial vowel of another: e.g. les amis = le-z” ami. 


27. ELision.— Final-e of monosyllabies in -e and a few 
compounds in -que, and final a of Ja, are usually (cf. notes) 
elided before a vowel or h ‘mute’, their loss being indicated 
in writing by the use of an apostrophe. — Ex. arbre (for le 
arbre), jai (for je ai), qwil (for que il), Padme (for la dme); 
jusqwd (for jusque a). 

Nore 1.— The articles /e and /a are not elided before numerals, except 
un and its derivatives. — Ex. /e onze, /e huit; Pun. 

Notre 2.—The personal object-pronouns (me, te, le, la) when appended 
to their verb by a hyphen are elided only before the particles en, y, if per- 
taining to the same verb.— Ex. donne-m’en, menez-I’y ; but menez-le avec 
vous, envoyez-le en~chercher. 

Note 38.— The demonstrative adjective ce is cet before a vowel or h 
‘mute’ (cf. 107, note 1). 

Nore 4.—.Jusque always elides its e before a vowel-sound; quo/que 
_ lorsque, puisque, parce que, tandis que, only before un and personal pronouns 
(il, elle, on) ; quelque, presque only in the compounds quelqu’un, presqu’ile. 

Nore 5.—JIn other combinations than those described above, a hiatus 
remains (at least in writing), except in the following sporadic cases: 

a. / of si ‘if’ is elided before 7/, ils, (e.g. s’il) ; 

b. in analogy with verb-forms ending in s in the 2d sing. imperative and 
in t in the 3d sing. present indicative, an s is added to a 2d imperative 
ending in a vowel when followed by the appended object-particle en or y 
(e.g. donnes-en, vas-y : cf. 127), and a -t- is inserted between a verb-form 
ending in a vowel in the 3d sing. and an appended subject-pronoun (e.g. 
aime-t-il, a-t-il, aura-t-il : ef. 151 b). 


28. LINKING OF WorDs.— If one word ends with a con- 
sonant or consonant-combination, and the next begins with 


> 


28-33.] ELEMENTARY SOUNDS AND ACCENTS. 25 


a vowel or h ‘mute,’ the end-consonant —or exceptionally 
a consonant preceding it—is apt to be pronounced with 
the initial vowel-sound, thus ‘linking’ the two words. — Ex. 


aN 
vous avez, cet habit, déserts”arides, respect humain. 


[29.] This linking is regularly observed when the syntac- 
tical relation between the two words is close, as between a noun 
or adjective and its determinants, the verb and its subject, ete. 
In other cases, it is largely a matter of option or euphony, 
though it is observed much more regularly in solemn utter- 
ance or reading than otherwise. 

In linking words, the following rules are to be observed, viz. : — 


[30.] Final e, d, g, and s (or x) are pronounced like &, f¢, k, 
and z respectively. — Ex. vous avez (= vou-z avez); grand” 
homme (gra-t~omm), etc. About fin neuf, cf. 88. 

[31.] A final nasal vowel — which is rarely carried forward, 
except in cases of close syntactical connection — usually de- 


~—— 


velops an n-sound before the initial vowel (un ami = Wn’ami ; 
sometintes, though not as good, u~n’ami, u = eu). 


[32.] Of two or more end-consonants the linking is usually effected by 
the final (e.g. est~ici, sept heures, déserts~arides) ; but by the penultimate, 


co, 

if the last two consonants be -ct with silent -t or -ct (e.g. respect humain) ; 

and by none, unless one always pronounced, if the word be a singular 
“——™" 


in silent s (un mets exquis, un corps exquis; but in pl. des mets” exquis, des 
corps exquis). 

[38.] Some end-consonants are rarely or never linked. Thus especially : 
— -d of nouns is rarely linked, except in a few common phrases: e.g. sourd 
et muet; chaud et froid; un marchand étranger; but grand~homme, vend il, 
pied~a terre: (d =t).—-/ silent is not linked (except of gril, gentil, in 
linking = genti’y) ; e.g. un fusil @ vent.—m is never linked: e.g. /a faim et 
la soif.—-p and -6 of champ, camp, and plomb are not linked.—r silent 
of nouns is not linked; silent -r of adjectives and verbs is not usually 
linked, except in sustained style, as especially in poetry; e.g. un épicier 
avec son fils; bldmer & tort or bldmer~a tort. —-s of words in the sing. is not 
linked; e.g. le bras étendu, un avis intéressant. —-t is rarely linked after 7; 
and et ‘and’ never links (being thereby distinguished from est ‘is’): e.g. 
desert immense ; il dort en paix; lui et elle (but c’est~elle), 


26 SECOND PART. (34-36, 


i 


COMMON PHONETIC AND ORTHOGRAPHIC CHANGES IN 
INFLECTION AND DERIVATION. 


34. The following changes are of such regular occurrence 
that they may be stated here at the outset. 


[35.] Owing to the accent-stress, no other e-sound than an 
open (2; é; or e + two consonants) can precede an end-syllable 
containing a silent e, the only exception being that é occurs in 
immediate connection with a silent e (donnée). 

Whenever in inflection this principle would be contravened, 
e mute or é of the tone-syllable are made open (= 2, or e with 
the following consonant, especially if 1, n, or ¢, doubled). — 
In verbs, a radical e (not é) is treated in analogous aanner 
before any syllable containing an e ‘mute.’ — Ex. chére (fem. 
of cher ‘dear’), secrete (fem. of secret), mene (pres. of mener 
‘lead ’), céde (pres. of céder ‘ yield’); crue/le (fem. of cruel), 
appelle (pres. of appeler ‘ call’) ; ancienne (fem. of ancien ‘old’), 
jette (pres. of jeter ‘throw’) ;— menerai (fut. of mener); but 
céderai (fut. of céder), appellerai (fut. of appeler). : 

Notr 1.— Before -ge € was once required. The Academy now allows 
a consistent use of @. — Ex. protége or protége. 

Notre 2.— With regard to the doubling of a consonant before mute e the 
following may be noticed: / is always doubled in feminine forms, but not 
so consistently in tense-forms (cf. 126 note) ; m always in feminine forms, 
but rarely in tense-forms (cf. tienne, etc.) ; t somewhat irregularly in both 
feminine and tense-forms. 


[36.] Between two vowels, / is preferable to y before e mute, while y 
must be used before other vowels. — Ex. crofe: croyant ; effraie (or effraye) ; 
effrayer ; pajerai (or payerai): payer. . 


37-40.] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 27 


[37.] When c and g are to retain their hard sound (as in ‘can,’ ‘ go,’) 
before e, i, y, they must be changed to gu and gu: e.g. publique (fem. of 
public) ; vague. In verbs qu and gu are retained even before other vowels: 
e.g. moquons (of moquer). 

Vice versa, when ¢ and g are to have their soft sound before a, 0, u, they 
are changed to ¢ and ge respectively: e.g. plagons (of placer) ; mangeons 
(of manger). 

er EY SRE 


TI. 
ARTIOLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 


[38. HISTORY. — Already in Latin, and especially in the popular 
idiom, i//e ‘ that’ and unus ‘one’ were sometimes used in a manner approach- 
ing that of real articles. In French /e (relic of the Lat. accusative illim, 
with irregular, proclitic, accent) and un (Lat. unum), like English the’ 
and ‘an,’ have a special function as proclitics denoting how far the sense 
of the word to which they are attached applies. 

Moreover, the Latin use of the partitive genitive has in French given 
rise to an extended general use of de ‘ of,’ with or without the definite article, 
before any noun whose meaning is to be accepted in a partitive sense. By 
this use of de (/e), which was almost unknown in Old French, modern 
French possesses a special partitive article, in part corresponding to 
English ‘some’ or ‘ any,’ as explained in 45. ] 


39. French nouns are usually preceded by some unemphatic 
word denoting how their meaning is to apply. These deter- 
minants, the Definite or (Generic), the Indefinite, and the Par- 
titive Article, are described below. 


40. THE DEFINITE (or Generic) ARTICLE. — This article 
is required either —like the English ‘the’ — before nouns 
whose general meaning is specialized and thus made definite 
(e.g. Vor que j'ai ‘the gold which I have’); or else — where in 
English more usually no article occurs — before nouns used, 
definitely, in their absolute or generic sense (e.g. Vor est pré- 
cieux ‘gold is precious’), 


28 SECOND PART. [40-4:. 


MASCULINE. ’ FEMININE. 


Sing. le (or P : 27) /a (or IP’ : 27) 





PE les 

Ex. —le pére ‘the father’; la mére ‘the mother’; ?amour, 
masc., ‘the love’ (definite, as in Pamour de ma mére ‘my 
mother’s love’) or ‘love’ (generic, as in l'amour vient du ceur 
‘love comes from the heart’) ; les péres et les méres ‘the fathers 
and the mothers,’ or ‘fathers and mothers’ generally ; Vhomme 
‘the man’ or ‘man’; /’dme, fem., ‘the soul.’ 

Nore.— A conception may be definite in its individuality (/’or de mon 
pere) as well as in its generality or entirety (or est précieur). Hence the use 
of the definite article in both cases in French. It is only for convenience, 
to emphasize the different usage in French and English in this respect, 


that the terms definite and generic have been here adopted. The distinction 
is always made clear by the context (cf., farther, Syntax, 195). 


[41.] CONTRACTION.—The prepositions de ‘of’ and a ‘to’ 
blend with a following le or les (never with Ja or 7?) into one 
form, viz. : — 


de le into du; Ex. du pére ‘of the father’; 
deles “ des; “ despéres (méres) ‘of the fathers (mothers)’ ; 
ale “ au; “ aw peére ‘to the father’ ; 


a les“ aux; “ aux peres (aux meres) ‘to the fathers 
(mothers).’ 


But: de la mere ‘of the mother’; de lami ‘ of the friend.’ 


[ History. — In Old French, the contractions were del, dels, al, als respec- 
tively. These by a common process of mutation — consisting in the change 
of / to u—have become du (formerly dew) des, au, aux (x for s, as ex- 
plained under 47, B).] 

Norte. — En ‘in’ and /es are contracted to @s (formerly e/s or eus), which 
is now retained only in a few expressions denoting academic titles, as 
bachelier és lettres ‘bachelor of letters,’ docteur és sciences ‘ doctor of science.’ 


42. THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE is: masc. un; fem. une ‘an, 
a.’ — Ex. un peére ‘a father, wne mere ‘a mother.’ 





43-45. ] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 29 


43. DEPENDENT and INDEPENDENT PARTITIVE SIGN. — 
When only a portion of the thing or things designated by 
a noun in its absolute or generic use is really contemplated, 
it is in French for the most part preceded by the preposition ~ 
de ‘of *(= ‘portion of’), whether grammatically required by a 
preceding word (as in wne livre'de beurre ‘a pound of butter,’ 
beaucoup de vin ‘much wine’: cf. 44), or not thus required (as 
in j'ai du vin ‘I have wine = some wine,’ des soldats sont venus 
‘soldiers or some soldiers have come,’ je n’ai pas de vin ‘I have 
not any wine’). 

In its latter use, where its prepositional value is no longer 
felt, de (with or without /e, /a, les) is in French usually called 
the Partitive Article (l’article partitif ). 

As will be shown under the head of Syntax, where this subject properly 
belongs, de after the negatives pas (point, etc.) is really a dependent, par- 


titive sign (pas etc. being once nouns); but it is no longer as such felt in 
the actual language, where pas etc. have the value of negative particles. 


{44.] The dependent partitive sign (i.c. de grammatically 
required by a preceding word) is a true preposition. It is 
used, on the whole, like ‘of’ in English, save only that French 
requires it not only, like English, after nouns of quantity 
(as in une livre de beurre ‘a pound of butter’), but also after 
adverbs of quantity, in English rendered by adjectives or 
otherwise, as seen by the examples below. — Ex. beaucoup 
(adv.) de beurre ‘much (adj.) butter’; peu (adv.) de pain 
‘little (adj.) bread’; plus (adv.) de livres ‘more (adj.) books’ ; 
trop (adv.) de pain ‘too much (ady. + adj.) bread’; assez 
(adv.) de pain ‘enough (adv. = adj.) bread,’ or ‘bread enough.’ 

Much ete. are in English similarly construed before this, that: e.g.‘ much 
(enough, etc.) of this.’ 


Cf., farther, Syntax. 


[45.] The independent partitive sign (=the ‘partitive article’) 
consists either of de with the generic article (i.e. of du, de /a, 


30° SECOND PART. (45-47, 


des: 41), or of de alone. The latter is the case when the 
partitive noun is preceded by an adjective supplanting the 
generic article (e.g. jai de bon vin ‘I have some good wine’) ; 
and usually when it is the unmodified accusative object of a 
negative verb (je n'ai pas de vin ‘I have not any wine”). 

The independent partitive sign occurs in French not only 
where English has or could have ‘some’ (except in sense of 
‘a few’: quelques) or ‘any’ (except in sense of ‘every’: tout), 
but also in other cases where the partitive sense is present. 


EXAMPLES: 
J’ai du beurre. I have (some) butter. 
Avez-vous du beurre ? Have you some (any) butter? 
J’ai de Pamitié pour vous. I have friendship for you. 
Vendez-vous des livres? Do you sell books ? 
J’ai de bon vin. I have (some) good wine. 
Jai du vin rouge. I have (some) red wine. 
Je n'ai pas de vin. I have no (not any) wine. 
‘Celu n'est pas du vin. That is not wine. 


For farther details, cf. Syntax. 


[46.] The independent partitive sign is always excluded 
by a preceding de. — Ex. L’araignée vit"de mouches (not vit de 
des-mouches) ‘ The spider lives on flies.’ 


aceite 
IV. 


NOUNS. 


(47. HISTORY. — A. Loss of Cases. The six Latin case-forms have . 
in French been reduced to one in both singular and plural. This sweeping 
reduction, which has made the French noun even more barren of forms 
than the English with its possessive case, was brought about only gradually. 
Thus, the ancient Gallo-Romanic speech had, like Latin, five declensions 
and six cases, though this complicated system was simplified in the popular 
speech, The Old French dialect, till the beginning of the 12th century, 





47.] NOUNS. 31 


had three declensions and two cases. Then, till the end of that century. 
one declension, modelled on the Latin second, but still two cases; eig. 


Nom. sing. murs (L. murus) Nom. pl. mur (L. muri) 
Acc. “ mur (L. murum) Ace. “ murs (L. muros) 


These two cases were finally reduced to one in the 14th century. And thar 
one was not the nominative, but the accusative (marked in bold type 
above). Only a few words —as /jils (L. filius), seur (L. soror), trattre (LL. 
traditor) — preserved in singular the nominative form, instead of the accu- 
sative. A few others have survived in both cases, but as distinct words: 
e.g. patre (i. pastor) ; pasteur (Li. pastorem) ; sire (L. senior) ; seigneur (L. 
seniorem). 

B. Plural Sign.— As the accusative plural terminated in s—all 
neuters having been reduced to masculines, or less often to feminines, 
already in the early Gallo-Romanic speech —s naturally became the 
plural sign in modern French. 

By a confusion, however, x (for o, both conventional signs in Old 
French for -uws) has come to be used instead of s, as the regular plural 
sign of nouns with a final monophthong in -u, as well as those which change 
final -/ to -u in the plural: e.g. chevau-x (for chevaw or chevazx : u restored 
and yet x retained in chevaurx), chapeau-x. Farther, if the singular ended 
already in a hissing sound (s, x, or z), it suffered no change in the plural. 

Some of the actual rules for the plural formation of compound nouns 
(53) and proper names have been fixed only since the 17th century. 

C. Gender. — Latin had three genders. Of these the neuter was lost 
in French, neuter nouns being changed, for the most part, into masculines. 
Hence the following general analogy : 


Lat. masc. and neut.= Fr. masc. 


Lat... fem. = Fr. fem. 
This general correspondence, however, has been considerably disturbed 
by various influences, chiefly that of false analogy. Thus: —1. Latin 


plural neuters in -a became feminines, in analogy with feminines in -a- 
e.g. L. arma (n.): Fr. arme (f.); L. folia (n.): Fr. feuille (£.); L. vela 
(n.): Fr. voile (f.) ; ete. —2. Several Latin feminines in -us (especially 
names of trees) became masculines in analogy with masculines in us: e.g. 
L. cupressus (f.): Fr. cyprés (m.); L. pinus (f.): Fr. pin (m.); L. cedrus 
(f.): Fr. cédre (m.); low L. casnus (f.): Fr. chéne (m.).—3. Several Lat. 
masculines (or neut.) changed so as to end in -e in French became femi- 
nine, that being the usual gender of words in -e. e.g. L. cometes (m.): Fr. 
comete (f.); L. pulverem (Fr. pulvis, m.): Fr. poudre (£.); L. amyletum (n.) : 


32 SECOND PART. [47-50. 


Fr. amulette (f.).—4. Abstract nouns in -eur, in analogy with abstract 


nouns (as in fe, etc.) generally, became feminines: e.g. L. calor (m.): Fr. 
chaleur (£.); L. color (m.): Fr. couleur (f.) ; L. pavor (m.): Fr. peur (£.). 
—5. A few nouns are masc. in their concrete, but feminine in their 
abstract sense: e.g. garde (m.) ‘guard, watchman’: garde (f.) ‘ guard, 
care.’ —6. minuit (-nuit > L. nox, f.) is masc. in analogy with midi (-di- 
L. dies, m.); gens (pl. of gent ‘race, nation’: Lat. gent-em of gens, f.), 
assuming the sense ‘ person,’ became masc. in many uses, but not all (cf. 
62d): and so on. 

Nouns of German or Greek origin also preserve the German or Greek 
gender in a manner analogous, in the main, with that described above. ] 


48. — French nouns have as a rule a different form for the 
singular and plural. But, unlike English nouns, they suffer 
no other change whatever. 


49. PLURAL FORMATION. 


[50.] Common Nouns not terminating already in a sibilant 
(s, w, 2) form their plural by adding s or x to the singular form. 

X is simply a spurious (47, b) substitute for s after nearly 
all monopthongs in -v. It is added to all nouns in -eau, 
-(o)eu, and some in -ow (note 1); and always to final -au, the 
required conversion in plural of final -al in most cases 
(note 2) and of -ail in many (note 3). — Ex. 


a. s added: 
Sing. pere ‘father’? . 2.0. . 2°. pl peres 
é“ maison * house’ . é 


Seer Maisons 
Ae ae Came ray Th eS gee 
b. x added (1) directly : 
Sing. chapeau ‘hat’. . . . . . pl. chapeaux 
ic feu “hire ' gods ¢ feux 
6 DRAB wal ee os haa Oe 


(2) after the conversion of -al, -ail to -au: 
Sing. général ‘general’ . . . . pl. générau-x 
cheval “horse? os dyn eee A ROR aas 
“  coradl “corel os wo agua, oo 1 erat 


» ota 


50.] NOUNS. 33 


Nouns in a sibilant are invariable: 


SSRIS 3 Sg OS “SIMO eres 0 Pee 7 
ii EM I eh Son oe a, ee Te 
a WE TM es peed! wi eoe, Gs eek HES WOR 

Nore 1.— Seven nouns in -ov add x in the plural. They are: bijou 
‘jewel,’ caillou ‘pebble,’ chou ‘cabbage,’ genou ‘knee,’ hibou ‘owl,’ joujou 
‘toy,’ pou ‘louse.’ — Others in -ow add s. 

Notre 2.— A few nouns in -a/ simply add s in the plural. The most 
important are: monosyllabics (except mal ‘evil’ and val ‘ vale’); some 
polysyllabics as aval ‘surety,’ carnaval ‘ carnival,’ régal ‘entertainment’ ; 
and in general foreign names of plants and animals (nopal ‘Indian fig- 
tree,’ chacal ‘jackal,’ etc.). 

Note 5.— Nouns in -a// are differently treated. About one-half of 
these (deétail, épouvantail, éventail, gouvernail, poitrail, portail, and a few less 
common) add s to the singular. The remainder change -ail to -au, and 
then ad@ x (corail ‘coral,’ pl. corau-x ; travail ‘labor,’ pl. travauz, rarely 
travails, cf. note 4; etc.). Yet ail ‘garlic’ has in plural ails or aulx; and 
bétail ‘cattle’ has bestiauz. 


Nott 4.—The following nouns have a double plural form, 


an irregular retaining the general meaning of the noun, and a 
regular restricting in some manner that meaning: 


wieux ‘ancestors ’ 

aieuls ‘grandfathers’ 

cieux ‘ heavens, skies’ 

ciels ‘skies in pictures, clime, testers,’ etc. 


ajeul ‘ancestor, grandfather’ ' 


ciel « sky, heaven ’ | 


yeux ‘eyes’ 
@il ‘eye’ < ceils in wils-de-beuf ‘oval windows’ and many 
. names of natural products. 


. travaus ‘labors’ 
travail ‘labor’ (cf. note 3 | 
( ) travails ‘ official reports’; ‘brakes’ 


Notre 5.— Usage varies with regard to the plural form of foreign 
nouns. Generally s is added to simple nouns of familiar use (album-s, 
opéra-s, piano-s, etc.), while others, especially compounds, and some pure 
Latin words, remain unchanged (les post-scriptum, les Te Deum, les credo 
or -credos, les requiem or requiems, etc.), or have their foreign plural form 
(les maxima, tes minima, les lazzaroni, les ladies, les tories, etc.). 








34 SECOND PART. (51-53. 


[51.] Proper Nouns are for the most part unchanged in the plural 
when not used figuratively. Names of persons, however, take the plural 
sign: a) When denoting illustrious families or dynasties: e.g. les Scipions, 
les Bourbons.—b) When applied, by way of comparison, to other persons 
than those to whom they properly belong; or when used as titles of books 
or works of art: e.g. La France a ses César-s ; des Raphaél-s ‘pictures of 
Raphaél.’ 

Nore. — Several geographical names (les Indes, les Vosges, etc.) are used 
chiefly or alone in the plural. 


[52.] Asin English, so also in French various nouns, especially abstracts 
or names of material, are used chiefly or alone in the singular [e.g. ‘ver- 
dure’ ‘verdure,’ argent ‘silver, money,’ lait ‘milk,’ etc.], while others are 
used chiefly or alone in the plural [e.g. ancétres (rarely sing. m. or f.) ‘an- 
cestors,’ annales ‘ annals,’ environs ‘ surroundings,’ frais ‘ expenses,’ funerailles 
‘funeral,’ meurs ‘ customs,’ ténébres ‘ shadows,’ etc. ]. 

Nore. — Several nouns have in the plural a specialized meaning, differ- 
ing more or less from that of the singular: e.g. fer ‘iron,’ pl. fers, generally 
‘fetters,’ but also ‘implements of iron,’ ‘kinds of iron’; grace ‘charm, 
mercy,’ grdces ‘thanks’; ciseau ‘ chisel,’ ciseaux ‘ scissors,’ and so on. 


53. PLURAL OF ComPpouND Nouns. — A. When the 
members of a compound, having lost more or less of their 
identity with regard to form or meaning, are written together 
without any intervening hyphen, the compound is treated as a 
single word. — Ex. gendarme (for gent d’arme) ‘ gendarm,’ pl. 
gendarmes ; banlieue (for ban-lieue ‘land under public ban or 
jurisdiction ’) ‘jurisdiction or precincts of a city,’ pl. banlieues ; 
grand’mere (cf. 64, B) ‘grandmother,’ pl. grand’méres. 

B. When the members of a compound are separated by a 
hyphen, each of them, if a noun or adjective (demi and nu 
excepted) is put in the number in which it would be construed 
were the compound to be resolved according to its logical 


meaning. But other words than nouns and adjectives always 


remain unchanged. — Thus, ver-luisant ‘glow-worm,’ pl. vers- 
luisants (luisant ‘shining’ agreeing with ver ‘worm’); chej- 
liew ‘chief place, head-quarters,’ pl. chefs-lieux (chef ‘head, 
leader’ being in apposition with liew ‘place’); arc-en-ciel ‘rain- 


sail al (9a 








53-55.) NOUNS. 35 


bow,’ pl. arcs-en-ciel (i.e. “arches in the sky,” not “in the 
skies”); Hétel-Dieu ‘hospital,’ pl. Hétels-Dieu (i.e. “hotels of 
God,’ not “of gods”) ; avant-coureurs ‘forerunners’; aprés-midi 
‘afternoon,’ pl. aprés-midi (i.e. the parts of the day coming 
“after midday ”’); téte-d-téte ‘interview,’ pl. téte-d-téte (because 
the meetings are always “head to head,” i.e. between two) ; 
passe-partout ‘master-key,’ pl. passe-partout (because both words 
are indeclinable). 


[54.] From this general principle (B) are derived the following special 
rules, viz.: — 

a. If one member of a compound is a noun qualified by another noun 
in apposition, or by an adjective, both members take the plural sign. — 
Ex. chefs-lieux ‘chief places,’ choux-fleurs ‘ cauli-flowers’; vers-luisants 
‘ glow-worms,’ grands-péres ‘ grand-fathers.’ 

b. If the members of a compound are combined by a preposition ex- 
pressed Or understood, the chief member (generally the first) takes the 
plural sign. — Ex. arcs-en-ciel ‘ rain-bows,’ chefs-d’auvre ‘ master-pieces,’ pots- 
de-vin ‘ bribes’; Hétels-Dieu ‘ hospitals’; timbres-poste ‘ postage stamps.’ 

Nore 1.—If one member does not qualify the other, both are un- 
changed. — Ex. téte-u-téte ‘interviews.’ 

Nore 2.—If the second member is plural in sense, it has the plural 
sign, whether the compound, as such, be in the plural or not. — Ex. le 
char-a-bancs ‘coach’ (“with benches”). 

c. If the first member is a verb-stem and the second a noun, both are 
generally unchanged (usage varying with regard to the noun).— Ex. 
perce-neige ‘ snow-drops’; essuie-main or -s, in both sing. and pl., ‘ towels.’ 

d. If the compound consists of a particle and a noun, the noun is un- 
changed if the particle is a preposition governing it, but otherwise it is 
inflected. — Ex. les aprés-midi ‘the afternoons’; les avant-coureurs ‘the 
forerunners.’ 


55. GENDER.— French nouns, whether names of living 
beings or not, are either masculine or feminine. No rules that 
are at all practical can teach the learner to determine, in every 
case, the gender of anoun. But afew general rules will help 
him to decide with relative certainty in a majority of cases, as 
also aid him in acquiring what only constant practice can teach 
him fully. These rules are given below, 56-62. 


36 SECOND PART. [55-59. 


The classical student is helped in determining the gender of a French 
noun by the general analogy existing between the Latin and French gender, 
as described in the historical introduction, 47, C.— All students should, as 
an aid to memory, make it a habit to associate with a French noun the 
definite or (when the noun begins with a vowel) the indefinite article. 


[56.] Masculines are : 

a. Nouns denoting male beings: e.g. le pére ‘the father,’ le 
rot ‘the king,’ le boeuf ‘the ox.’ 

b. Nouns not implying distinct sex, when their termination 
differs from that of feminine nouns, as described below (57 b): 
e.g. le sofa ‘the sofa,’ le blé ‘the grain,’ le noyau ‘the kernel,’ 
le courage ‘the courage,’ le fantéme ‘the phantom’; —le pain 
‘the bread,’ le fer ‘the iron,’ le nom ‘ the name.’ | 


[57.] Feminines are : 

a. Nouns denoting female beings: e.g. la mére ‘the mother,’ 
la sceur ‘the sister,’ la reine ‘the queen,’ la vache ‘ the cow.’ 

b. Nouns not implying distinction of sex, when they termi- 
nate in: 

-e (those in -ge, -éme, -dme, -cle, -sme, as well as names of 
trees usually excepted) : e.g. la vie ‘the life,’ la table ‘the table,’ 
la lumiére ‘the light’;— but le siége ‘the seat, the siege,’ le 
siécle ‘the century,’ le chéne ‘the oak.’ 

-té, ti6: e.g. la bonté ‘the kindness’; la pitié ‘the pity’ ; 

-eur, -ion, -son (not -sson): e.g. la terreur ‘the terror,’ la pos- 
session ‘the possession,’ la maison ‘the house.’ 


[58.] The gender of nouns denoting living beings whose sex is not 
implied in the meaning of the word as commonly used, is for the most 
part determined by their ending (e.g. /a personne ‘the person,’ /a connais- 
sance ‘the acquaintance’; le homard ‘the lobster,’ la mouche ‘the fly’). 
A few of these may, however, be used optionally for either gender (e.g. 
un or une enfant ‘a child’); and for names of animals that are used in 
only one gender, a distinction may be made by using after them mdle or 
femelle (la baleine mdle or femelle ‘ the whale’ m, or f.). 


[59.] Among numerous exceptions to the general rules 56, 57, may be 
noticed the following very common nouns : — Masculines, commerce ‘ com- 


i a ee ee a akg 


| 





59-62.] NOUNS. 37 


merce,’ doute ‘ doubt,’ fleuve ‘river,’ parapluie ‘umbrella’ (but pluie ‘rain,’ 
fem.), réve ‘dream,’ silence ‘silence,’ tonnerre ‘thunder,’ verre ‘ glass’ ; comité 
‘committee,’ cété ‘side,’ traité ‘treaty’; bonheur ‘ happiness,’ ceur ‘ heart,’ 
honneur ‘honor,’ malheur ‘ misfortune,’ poison ‘ poison’; and several nouns 
of common natural gender, as camarade ‘comrade,’ esclave ‘slave,’ déve 
‘ pupil,’ auteur ‘author.’ — Feminines, villa, loi ‘law,’ foi ‘faith,’ vertu 
‘virtue,’ aprés-midi ‘afternoon’ ; image ‘image,’ page ‘page (in a book),’ neige 
‘snow,’ rage ‘rage,’ boucle ‘ buckle,’ créme ‘ cream’ ; clef ‘ key,’ faim ‘ hunger,’ 
fin ‘end, main ‘hand,’ soif ‘ thirst,’ facon ‘ manner.’ 

Note.— Nouns in -e, of which some 5000 are feminines and some 
2000 masculines, are especially refractory to any sweeping classification. 
E mute, though most often representing the Latin feminine ending a, 
quite frequently represents some other vowel. 


[60.] Several nouns are used, with differentiated meaning, both as mas- 
culines and feminines. — Ex. un enfant ‘a child (= a boy),’ une enfant ‘a 
child (= a girl)’; le critique ‘ the critic,’ la critique ‘ the criticism’ ; le manche . 
‘the handle,’ la manche ‘the sleeve’; le mode ‘the manner,’ la mode ‘the 
fashion’; le poste ‘the post, the station,’ /a poste ‘the post-office’; le voile 
‘the veil,’ /a voile ‘the sail’ ; un aigle ‘an eagle’ (bird), une aigle ‘an eagle’ 
(as a standard or coat of arms): and many others. 


[61.] Several nouns of different gender, though identical in form, are 
of different origin, and thus naturally have a different meaning. — Ex. 
le livre ‘the book,’ la livre ‘the pound’; le page ‘the (boy) page,’ la page 
‘the page (of a book)’; /e souris ‘the smile,’ /a souris ‘the mouse’ ; le tour 
‘the round, the circuit, the turn,’ /a tour ‘ the tower’; le vase ‘ the vessel,’ 
la vase ‘the mud’: and many others. 


[62.] Some nouns are of different genders in singular and plural, or in 
different uses. Thus: 

a. Amour ‘love,’ délice ‘ delight,’ orgue ‘organ,’ are masc. in the singular 
and fem. in the plural (amour, sing., being often, however, fem. in poetry). 

b. Chose ‘thing,’ personne ‘ person,’ are fem. as nouns. They are masc. 
in the pronominal expressions quelque chose ‘something’ (not, however, in 
quelque chose ‘whatever’) and personne ‘ anybody.’ 

ec. Foudre ‘ lightning’ is fem. in its proper sense, but masc. when used 
metaphorically of a person. 

d. Gens ‘people, persons’ (properly a plural form of the feminine 
noun gent ‘race, nation’) wavers between masc. and fem.: it is masc. 
when its adjective follows (e.g. les gens sérieux ‘serious people’), but fem. 
when it precedes (les bonnes gens ‘good people’). Yet a preceding ‘all’ is 


38 SECOND PART. (62-64. 


always mase. (tous), save when followed by an adjective having a distinct 
feminine form (e.g. tous les gens, tous les honnétes gens, but toutes les bonnes gens). 

Norn. — Gens followed by a noun-determinant is always masc.: e.g. de 
nombreux gens de guerre ‘numerous soldiers’; certains gens d’étude ‘ certain 
men of study.’ 


63. Format RELATION BETWEEN KINDRED MASCULINE AND Feminine Nouns 
— Different genders of persons and of the more common animals are, as 4 
rule, denoted by the use of different words. The difference in form is either; 

a. radical, when both words are derived from different sources: e.g. 
pere ‘father,’ mére ‘mother’; homme ‘man,’ femme ‘ woman’ ; roi ‘ king,’ reine 
‘queen’; cheval ‘horse’ jument ‘mare’; beuf ‘ ox,’ vache ‘cow,’ etc.; or 

b. relative, when the feminine form is clearly derived from the mas- 
culine, the derivation being for the most part made in accordance with the 
principles determining the change of a masculine adjective to a feminine 
(ef. 67, etc.), except, chiefly: that final -e, -ewr are changed in the feminine 
to -esse, -euse; and that masculines in -tewx when derived from French 
verbs, change -teur to -teuse, otherwise to -trice (cf. 78): e.g. ami, m., amie, 
f., ‘friend’; cousin, m., cousine, f., ‘cousin’ ; berger ‘shepherd,’ bergere ‘ shep- 
herdess,’ chien ‘dog,’ chienne ‘bitch’; baron ‘ baron,’ baronne ‘baroness’ ; 
comte ‘count,’ comtesse ‘countess’; tigre ‘ tiger,’ tigresse ‘ tigress’; danseur, 
m., danseuse, f., ‘dancer,’ acteur ‘ actor,’ actrice ‘ actress,’ etc. 


a. aa 


ve 
ADJECTIVES, 


[64. HISTORY.— A. The case-forms of Latin adjectives have been 
reduced in French in precisely the same manner as those of nouns (47, 
A, B). 

B. The genders have also been reduced to two: the masculine and 
the feminine. The latter has the distinct ending -e (mute), which corre- 
sponds to the Latin -a (e.g. Lat. bona = Fr. bonne), though it is now often 


added even to such feminines as had no -a in Latin (Lat. grandis, m., 


grandis, f.; Old Fr. grand, m., grand, f.; Fr. grand, m., grande, f.), or 
sometimes to both the masculine and the feminine (triste, m. and f.). A 
trace of the old feminine form grand is yet seen in a few words like grand’- 
mere *‘ grandmother,’ where the apostrophe is inserted, by a misunderstand- 
ing, to denote the loss of an (imaginary) e. . 


ee é 
eee 





64-66. ] ADJECTIVES. 39 


Some adjectives retain in the feminine a more primitive form than in 
the masculine: cf. vif: fem. vive ‘lively,’ from Lat. vivus; bénin : bénigne 
‘benign’ from Lat. benignus; nul: nulfe ‘none,’ from Lat. nuf/us; beau: 
belle ‘ beautiful,’ from Lat. be//us ; gros: grosse ‘ large,’ from Lat. grossus, 
etc. In other cases, the feminine form suffers a purely orthographical 
(and comparatively modern) change, serving to denote its pronunciation, 
or made by analogy: e.g. cher. f. chere ‘dear’ (@ to avoid che-re, with e- 
mute: 35); cruel: crue/le (to avoid cru-e-le) ‘cruel’; public: publique (to 
avoid publice) ‘public’; long: longue (to avoid longe, g = 7) ‘long’; bon- 
bonne (to denote the openness of the o-sound), and so on. 

C. The Degrees of Comparison are expressed, as they were already 
in Old French, by the aid of independent words (plus ‘ more,’ moins ‘ less,’ 
= Lat. plus, minus). Only three Lat. comparatives (melior, pejor, minor = Fr. 
meilleur, pire, moindre) have been retained in French, and no superlative, if 
we except a few technical terms in -issime, imported in the 16th century. ] 


65. French Adjectives have, as a principle, a different form ~ 
for singular and plural, and for masculine and feminine, but 
suffer no other change. As attributes they are placed either 
before or after their noun (cf. 221). 


66. PLURAL FORMATION. — Adjectives form their plural 
in a manner analogous to that of the nouns (cf. 50).— Ex. 
joli ‘ pretty,’ plural jolis (fem. jolie, pl. jolies, and so on for all 
feminines, which in sing. invariably end in e); grand ‘ great,’ 
pl. grands ; — beau ‘beautiful, pl. beaux; hébrew ‘ hebrew,’ 
pl. hébreux ; — moral ‘ moral,’ pl. moraux; général ‘ general,’ 
pl. généraux ; — mauvais ‘bad,’ pl. mauvais; faux ‘false,’ pl. 
faux. : 


Notre 1.— Bleu ‘blue,’ feu ‘ late (= deceased),’ fou ‘foolish,’ mou 
‘soft,’ add s in the plural. 

Nore 2.— Adjectives in -a/ have but slowly yielded to the tetidency of 
changing -al to -aux, and plural forms in -a/s are frequently met with in the 
literature (fatals, finals, glacials, ete.); but they are constantly being 
reduced in number. 

Note 3.— Polysyllabics in -ant, -ent, may optionally drop t in the 
plural, but the more common practice is to keep it. — Ex. puissan(t)s. 


40 SECOND PART. (67-78. 


FoRMATION OF THE FEMININE. 


67. GENERAL Rute.—Masculines, not ending in e, add e in 
the feminine; those in e remain unchanged. — Ex. grand, fem. 
grande ‘great’; mauvais: mauvaise ‘bad’; joli: jolie ‘ pretty’ ; 
aimé: aimée ‘ beloved’; —jeune: jeune ‘ young,’ 


68. SpreciraL Ruies.— Before this e, the masculine form 
is subject to certain variations, These being either A. etymo- 
logical, due to the fact that the feminine has retained a more 
primitive form than the masculine; or B. orthographical, serv- 
ing chiefly to denote the pronunciation of the feminine form, 
are described below (cf. 64, B). 


A. Chiefly Etymological Changes: 
[69.] Final f is changed to v.— Ex. vif: f. vive ‘lively, 
vivid’; actif: active ‘active’; bref: breve ‘brief’ (é: 74). 
[70.] Bénin ‘benign’ and malin ‘ malicious’ resume in the feminine a 
lost g- benigne, maligne. 


[71.] Absous ‘absolved’ and dissous ‘dissolved’ are in the feminine 
absoute, dissoute. 

[72.] Frais (from a Germanic form fresc) ‘fresh’ is in the 
feminine fraiche. 


[73.] Beau ‘beautiful,’ nouveau ‘new, different,’ fou ‘fool- 
ish,’ mou ‘soft,’ vieux ‘old, retain in the singular, when placed 
before a noun beginning with a vowel or h ‘mute,’ their older 
masculine forms 6e/ (also used in bel et bon), nouvel, fol, mol, 
vieil (the last optionally). Their feminine, singular or plural, 
is always made from this latter form by doubling / before e. 
Hence we have: 

SING. PLUR. 


m. 6eau or (+ vow. or h ‘mute’) bel beaux ' Heatitnt 
£; belle belles 


“—_, = a a os - 


ae sss Se = on 


73-75.) ADJECTIVES. 41 


m. nouveau or nouvel atsgonnd: eae 
f. nouvelle — nouvelles 
m. fou or fol fous } foolish 
‘ folle folles 
m. mou or mol mous } 
soft 
f. molle molles 
m. v/eux or vieil vieux t 
¥: vieille wieilles 


Ex. un bel arbre ‘a beautiful tree,’ un beau palais ‘a fine 
palace’; une belle dme ‘a beautiful soul’; une belle maison ‘a 
beautiful house’; les beaua arbres ‘the fine trees’; les belles 
maisons ‘ the fine houses.’ 


B. Chiefly Orthographical Changes: 


[74.] In accordance with the orthographical principle stated 
§ 35, a penultimate e of the masculine form is designated as 
open in the feminine : 

a. By its change to @ where the following consonant is not 
doubled according to b.— Ex. cher: f. chére ‘dear’; amer: 
amere ‘bitter’; secret: secréte ‘secret’; sec: séche (ch: 76, 1) 
‘dry’; bref: breve (v: 69). 

b. By the doubling of a following /, n, and ¢ (except of -cret, 
-plet). — Ex. cruel: cruelle ‘cruel’; ancien: ancienne ‘ancient’ ; 
net: nette ‘neat’; muet: muette ‘mute.’ 


Norte. — Inquiet ‘uneasy’ has the feminine inguiéte. 


[75.] Final /, n, t, as well as s, are also often doubled after 
other vowels than e (s for etymological reasons). Thus: 

/ after ei, i, to designate the y-sound (e.g. pareil: pareille 
‘similar’; gentil: f. genti/fe ‘nice’); and after w in nul (f. 
nulle = Lat. nu/fa) ‘null, no.’ 

n, and t (of monosyllabics and diminutives) after 0: e.g. bon: 
bonne ‘good’; sot: sotte ‘foolish’; bellot: bellotte ‘pretty.’ 


42 SECOND PART. (75-80. 


S§ in monosyllabics (bas ‘low,’ las ‘tired,’ gras ‘fat,’ gros ‘big,’ etc.), 
except ras ‘smooth.’ Also in épais ‘thick,’ expres ‘ positive,’ profes ‘ pro- 
fessed’ (these two losing their grave accent), métis ‘mongrel.’ — Fem. 
forms: basse, lasse, etc. (the Lat. originals, Lassus, etc., having ss). 


[76.] Final c, g, and a (spurious sign for s) are before e, 
to retain or restore their utterance, written gu, gu, and s.— 
Ex. public: publique ‘public’; long: longue ‘long’; heureux: 
heureuse * happy.’ 


Nore 1.— Grec ‘Grecian’ is in fem. written grecque (i.e. grec-que, to 
avoid gre-que - 35); and blanc ‘white,’ franc ‘free,’ sec ‘dry’ change c to 
ch (blanche, franche, séche). 

Nore 2.— Doux ‘sweet,’ faux ‘false,’ roux ‘red’ (us’ly of hair), préfix 
‘ prefix’ are, for historical reasons, in the fem. douce, fausse, rousse, préfixe. 


[77.] To denote the unaltered pronunciation of final gu, a dieresis 
(6) is placed over the added e. — Ex. aigu ‘sharp’: aigu-é. 


78. Nouns in -(t)eur used appositively as adjectives end in the fem. 
in -(t)euse if derived from French verb-roots, otherwise in -trice (Lat. 
trix): ef. 68, b. It is to be noticed, however, that such nouns if denoting 
a profession chiefly practised by men remain unchanged in the feminine. 
— Ex. danseur: danseuse ‘dancer’; chanteur: chanteuse ‘singer,’ acteur - 
actrice ‘ actor, actress’ ; — auteur, m. f., ‘author,’ docteur, m. f., ‘ doctor.’ 

Notre 1.— Ambassadeur, empereur, enchanteur, serviteur form the femi- 
nines ambassadrice, impératrice, enchanteresse, servante. 

Nore 2.—Nouns in e add -sse (trattre.: traitresse ‘traitor’). Favori 
‘favorite’ forms the feminine favorite. 


79. A few adjectives (dispos ‘lively,’ fat ‘foppish,’ aquilin ‘ aquiline,’ 
etc.) are used only with masc. nouns, and a few others (crasse ‘ gross’ 
etc.) only with feminine nouns. 


80. Compounp Anduectives. — In compound adjectives, the first member 
is changed in gender and number only when co-ordinated with the second. 
e.g. sourd-muet ‘deaf and dumb’; f. sourde-muette ; pl. sourd(e)s-muett(e)s ; 
but nu-pieds ‘ bare-footed,’ clair-semé ‘ thin-sown, with the determining 2u- 
and clair- invariable. — Compounds denoting shades of color are invariable: 
e.g. rouge-foncé ‘ deep-red,’ sing. or pl. 


to gies Dn pls a eee 








81-84.] ADJECTIVES. 43 


CoMPARISON. 


[81.] The comparative of adjectives is formed by placing 
plus ‘more’ or moins ‘less’ before the positive, and the super- 
lative by putting the definite article (or possessive adjective), 
before the comparative. — Ex. 


beau ‘fine’ plus beau ‘finer’ le plus beau ‘the finest’ 
beau “ moins beau ‘less fine’ le moins beau ‘the least fine’ 
haut ‘high’ plus haut ‘higher’ mon plus haut ‘my highest’ 


[82.] Bon, mauvais, petit. — These adjectives are compared 
in two different ways (one old and irregular) according to 
their different sense, as shown below : 


sa ‘ good’ meilleur le meilleur 
[‘ good-natured, silly’ plus bon le plus bon }rare 
: rae evil’ pire le pire 

mauvais Bi, : 
-*bad, of poor quality’ plus mauvais le plus mauvais 

tit ‘little’ : moindre le moindre 

peti fy Sea I - ] : 

small (in size) plus petit e plus petit 


Nore 1.— The distinction in use between these first and second forms 
of comparison (especially of mauvais and petit) is not so absolute as to 
exclude all option, and popular usage is towards the second or analytic form. 

Norte 2.— From the above adjectives should be carefully distinguished 
the kindred adverbs b/en, ma/, and peu, about which cf. 168. 


[83.] Some adjectives, such as principal ‘chief,’ dernier ‘last,’ éternel 
‘eternal,’ etc., by reason of their sense, admit of no comparison. 


84. ‘As (so) . . . as’ is rendered by auss/ (or s/ usually 
in negation) . . . gue; and ‘than’ by gue (or by de before a 
numeral). — Ex. ¢ est aussi grand que vous ‘he is as tall as 
you’; i n’est pas si grand que vous ‘he is not so tall as you’; 
il est plus grand que vous ‘he is taller than you’; il a plus de 
quinze ans ‘he is more than fifteen years of age.’ 


Notr.—‘As much (many) ... as’ is rendered by autant (or fant, 
usually in negation). . . que. 


44 SECOND PART. [85-87. 


[85.] ‘Many, more, most’ before a noun, or an adjective with a noun, 


are rendered as follows: ‘many’ beaucoup de (or plusieurs ‘ several’); 


‘more’ plus de; ‘most’ /a p/upart de (with the def. article). 


ce See 


Vi. 
NUMERALS. 


[86. HISTORY. — The Numerals are, as a rule, derived from corre- 
sponding Latin numerals. It should be noted, however : — That the older 
French forms for ‘70, 80, 90,’ septante, octante, nonante, of which septante 
and nonante, found even in classical authors, are yet in use, dialectically, 
in parts of France, have been supplanted, presumably through Celtic in- 
fluence, by the awkward forms soixante-dix (‘ sixty-ten’), quatre-vingts (‘four 
twenties ’ cf. ‘four-score ’), ‘ guatre-vingt-dix (‘ eighty-ten’) ;—b. That ‘Ist’ 
is premier (Lat. primarius) ;—c. That the ending -iéme (Lat. -esimus) is 
used for all ordinals from ‘ second’ upward. ] 


87. A list of the numerals, though properly belonging to the 
vocabulary, is, in accordance with common practice, given below. 


88. CARDINALS (all masc., except une). 


1 un Cf. une) 14 quatorze 
2 deux 15 quinze 
3 trois 16 seize (ei =elong) ., 
4 quatre 17 dix-sept (x = ss) 

5 cing (q=k)) Finals mute 18 dix-huit 
6 six (x=ss) before cons’t 19 dix-neuf 
7 

8 

9 


L= 2 


or A asp., if : 
sept (set) 5-10 wid ad. 20 vingt (gt mute) 





huit (°"%t) jectives.* Be- 21 vingt et un 

neuf (f=ff) fore vowels, - (or vingt-un) sees 
10 dix (x=ss)) f=», and r=z 22 vingt-deux ne q 
11 onze 23 vingt-trois 
12 douze ete. 
15 treizs (ci = é long) 30 trente 





* Heaco usually not in dates (/e cing mars: etc.), or where no determined 
noun follows (six peut étre ‘six perhaps’). 


— Se, 


88-90]. NUMERALS. 45 


31 trente et un (or trente-un) 90 quatre-vingt-dix (ott ving 
: gt in vingt 

32  trente-deur : etc. 91 quatre-vingt-onze silent) 

40 quarante ; 92 quatre-vingt-douze 

50 cinguante : 100 cent 

60 soixante (x = ss) 101 cent un } (¢ mute) 

70 soixante-dix (-x= -ss) 102 cent deux - 

71 soixante-onze (or soixante-et-onze) 200 deux cents 

72  soixante-douze . etc. 210 deux cent dix 

80 quatre-vingts (gts silent) 1000 mille 


81 quatre-vingt-un (gt in vingt 2000 deux mille (ii as in ‘ ill’) 
82 quatre-vingt-deux silent) 1000000 un million 


89. The cardinals up to a million are all uninflected, except 
that un ‘one’ has the feminine form une, and that multiples 
of vingt ‘20’ (i.e. quatre-vingts) and cent ‘100’ in their usual 
collective sense have the plural sign -s when not followed by an ° 
added number. — Ex. quatre-vingts ‘80’ (lit. ‘four twenties ’), 
but quatre-vingt-deux ‘82’; trois cents ‘300, but trois cent dix 
310.’ 

But compare Van trois cent ‘the year 300’ (trois cent denoting 
a certain year, not a collective sum of years), page quatre-vingt 
‘page 80.’ 

Million, trillion, ete., are nouns. They take s in the plural, and are con- 
strued with de. e.g. deux millions de livres ‘ 2,000,000 books.’ 

Nore. — Mille (m.) ‘1000’ is mi/ (really the old sing. form) in dates of 


the Christian era, if it is followed by another number. — Ex. mil deux 
cent (also douze cent) quatorze ‘1214’; but l’an mille ‘ the year 1000.’ 


90. Contrary to English usage, French employs cardinal 
numbers from deus (inclusive) on —1. to denote the day of 
the month: e.g. le quatre mars ‘the fourth of March’ ;— 
2. after names of sovereigns (where, however, second is also 
used): e.g. Henri quatre ‘Henry IV,’ Henri deux ‘ Henry II,’ 
Charles second ‘Charles II.’ 


Nore 1.—In Charles-Quint ‘Charles V’ (the emperor) and Sizte-Quint 
‘Sixtus V’ (the pope), the Latin quintus survives. 





46 SECOND PART. [90-93. 


Nore 2.— In quoting chapter, page, etc., it is optional, as in English, 
to use cardinals or ordinals, when the numeral follows its noun: e.g. chapi- 
tre trois or troisiéme ‘chapter III’ (but only /e troisiéme chapitre). 


91. ORDINALS. — Except for premier ‘first’ and second 
‘second,’ the ordinal numbers are made by suffixing -iéme to 
the cardinals, of which a final e is dropped. Cing ‘five’ forms 
cinguiéme, neuf ‘nine,’ newvieme; and wnieme, instead of pre- 
mier, is used in ‘21st,’ ‘31st,’ ete. 


[st premier 16th seiziéme 

2d = second (c= q), deuxiéme (x =z) 17th dix-septiéme 

3d ___troisiéme 18th dix-huitiéme 

4th quatriéme 19th dix-neuvieme 

5th cinquiéme 20th vingtiéme 

6th sixiéme (x = ss) 21st vingt (et) uniéme 
7th  septiéme 22d _—rvingt-deuxiéme: ete. 
8th huitieéme 80th trentiéme 

9th neuvieme 40th gquarantieme 
10th dixiéme (x = z) 50th cinquantiéme 
llth onzieme 60th soixantieme 
12th douziéme 70th sotxante-dixiéme 
13th treiziéme 80th quatre-vingtiéme 
14th quatorziéme 90th quatre-vingt-dixiéme 
15th quinzieme 100th centiéme: ete. 


92. Ordinais are inflected in gender and number like com- 
mon adjectives. — Ex. le premier, la premiére, les premiers 
(m.) or premieres (f.) ‘the first’; le or la siwidme, les siviémes 
‘the sixth.’ 

Notre 1.— Deuxiéme is optionally used instead of second when there are 
more than two, and always in compounds (vingt-deuxieme etc.). 

Nore 2.— Tiers (f. tierce) ‘3d’ and quart (f. quarte) ‘4th’ are still at 
times used as regular ordinals: e.g. une tierce personne ‘a third person’; 
un quart voleur ‘a fourth thief’ (La Font.). 


OTHER NumERALS (Nouns and Adjectives) : 


93. Co.tectives.— These are usually formed by suffixing -a/ne to a 
cardinal. — Ex. une huitaine ‘a number of eight, eight days,’ une dizaine 


Ee a ee Oe ee ee ee Yan ae 


ee 


93-96.] PRONOUNS. AT 


*10,’ une douzaine ‘a dozen,’ etc. — Such forms often express an approxi- 
mate number: une vingtaine, une centaine ‘ about 20, about 100.’ 


94. Fractionats. — Moitié, f., ‘half’ (noun, and construed as such: 
e.g. la moitié du temps ‘half of the time’); dems ‘half’ (either invariable 
and preceding its noun with a hyphen, or variable, f. demie, and following 
its noun: e.g. une demi-heure ‘a half-hour,’ une heure et demie ‘an hour and 
a half’); tiers (f. tierce) ‘third, quart ‘quarter’ (e.g. un quart d’heure 
‘quarter of an hour’);—c/nguieme ‘fifth, sixieme ‘sixth, etc., the 
denominator being, as in English, an ordinal. 


95. Muctipticatives. — Double ‘ double,’ triple ‘ treble,’ quadruple ‘ four- 
fold,’ quintuple ‘ fivefold,’ sextuple ‘sixfold,’ etc. 


Pea nen es Serie 
VIL. 


PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, 


[96. HISTORY. — A. General Reduction of Forms. A few pro- 
nominals, retaining two or even three case-forms, have resisted better than 
nouns and adjectives the analytic tendencies of the language; but the 
great majority have only one case and one or two genders. The personal 
pronoun 7/, alone in the whole language, has retained as many as three 
different case-forms (nom., acc., dat.) in singular and plural, masculine 
and feminine (cf. 100). ‘The personal pronouns je, tu, have two forms for 
the same three cases, and the relative qui, two forms for two cases (nom., 
ace.). All the remaining pronominals were reduced already in the 14th 
century to one case-form for the singular as well as one for the plural, 
that form usually representing, here as elsewhere, an original accusative. 
The neuter gender is lost, and several pronominals, as mes, nos, ces, qui, 
etc., have obliterated even the distinction between masculine and feminine. 

B. Double Forms. A plurality of the French pronominals have two 
different forms: an independent (and usually stronger) when they are used 
so as to have the tone; and a proclitic (usually weaker) when they sacri- 
fice their tone in favor of the word they determine. Thus, Lat. ego gave 
the proclitic form je (through eo, io, jo) and the independent form gié 
(now replaced by its object-form moi); Lat. mé, m7hi (through mi-) gave 
each the proclitic form me and the independent form moi (cf. 1, B); Lat. 
méum gave the proclitic form mon and the independent mien (1, B); and so 
on. This difference of form is the result chiefly (as in the examples quoted) 
of a different treatment of accented and unaccented vowels, but also, in 
part, of other causes. 


48 SECOND PART. [96-98. 


C. Derivation. With regard to derivation, it may be noted here that 
the French pronominals for the most part come directly from Latin, 
though exceptionally they are the result of new formations, by com- 
position, or by the pronominal use of a few nouns and adverbs. Thus, 
to quote a few cases where the connection is not apparent at first sight: 
je, moi (cf. above) ; /u/ is from a vulgar Latin dat. d//ui (proclitic accent 
on -lui) ; it is a proclitic dat., and has also replaced the older independent 
ace. el; feur is from illorum ;—ce, the adjective, is from eccistum (= ecce- 
istum), later icest, cest, cet (the last form being yet regularly used before 
vowels, and as basis of the feminine cette) ; ce, the neuter, is from eccehoc 
(igo, ga, ce) ; —celus is from ecc’illui (icelui, celui: but the fem. celle from 
eccillam) ;— on is from homo;—rien from rem (ace. of res); —y from 
ibi ; —en from inde: etc.] | 

97. The French pronouns and pronominal adjectives, like 
the English, are Personal (including Reflexive), Possessive, 


Demonstrative, Interrogative, Relative, and Indefinite. 


98. Most of the pronominal words have a double form 
in French (as more exceptionally in English: ef. my, mine). 
When they are closely combined with the word they determine, 
they lose their accent-stress in favor of that word, and usually 
receive a shorter or lighter form than when they are used more 
independently, and as such have the tone. We then have: 

a. A proclitic (usually called conjunctive, or adjective) form, 
which is used when the pronominal is combined closely with a 
verb or with a noun; and 

b. An Gioniént (usually called Nidietiye or pure pro- 
noun) form, which is used when the pronominal is separated 
from the verb or the noun it determines. 

No name for the two classes of pronominal forms described above has 
received sanction by uniform usage. ‘The terminology adopted below 
(conjunctive: disjunctive for the personal pronouns, and adjectives: 
pronouns for the other pronominals), though in some respects open to 
objection, is the terminology preferred by French grammarians. 

[The author would, indeed, prefer the uniform use of proclitic: independ- 
ent, but he has not ventured to adopt a terminology so much deviating 


from common usage (cf., however, Liicking. Mitzner adopts conjunctive : 
disjunctive throughout). ] : 





99, 100.] PRONOUNS. 49 | 


99. All monosyllabic pronominals in -e (except only the 
demonstrative adjective ce: 107, a), and also Ja, drop their 
vowel before a vowel-sound (e.g. /’ai for je ai, etc.), as already 
described in 27, 27. 2. . 


Personal Pronouns (Reflexive included). 


100. The Personal Pronouns are either a. conjunctive or b. 
disjunctive (98). 















































a. Conjunctive — b. Disjunctive 
[placed directly before (orafter) the verb as [separated fr. the verb, save 
unemphatic subject or object]: as predic.; emphatic]: 
A Bete 
Pers. | Nom. | Acc. | peek rte Nom. | Acc. 
: a je me moi 
I me | to me I | me 
Ir tu te tol 
3 thou ’ thee to thee thou | thee 
“~ % 
5 il le lui lui 
3 4 Ill m. Ris ig ae 
z he (it) him, it |to him (it) he him 
N 
f elle la lui elle 
“| she (it) | her (it) | to her (it) she her 
mf se sol (orlui, 
E 4 refi. | refi. elle) refi. 
I nous nous 
we | us | to us we | us 
II vous ; vous 
you you | to you you | you 
J 
; <i nf 
: ils les eux 
enim 
< they (m.) | them leur they (m.) them (m.) 
pa 
¢| elles les to them elles 
‘| they (f.) | them _ | they (f.) | them (f.) 
f se Soi (eum, 
a refi. | refl. elles) refi. 
L 


























50 SECOND PART. [100-102. 


Nore 1.— As seen above, il, elle, ils, elles have each three different 
case-forms, and je and tu two, while all the remaining pronouns have only 
one. Identical forms may, however, represent different cases (e.g. nous 
aimons ‘we love’; Il nous aime ‘He loves us’; J/ nous écrit ‘He writes 
to us’;—Je Jui parle ‘I speak to him (or to her)’; Luj (note 8) le fera 
‘He will do it’; Qui aimez-vous? Lui‘ Whom do you love? Him.’ Je 
parle de Jui ‘1 speak of him’). 

Note 2.—Vous ‘you’ may, precisely as in English, refer to one person 
or several. Tu ‘thou’ is used between intimate friends and relatives (cf. 
Syntax). 

Nore 8.— To render a conjunctive personal pronoun emphatic, the 
disjunctive form is placed before it, or after the predicate: e.g. Moi, je 
aime or Je aime, moi ‘I love him.’ For the 3d person, re i dla 
form alone is sometimes used: e.g. Lui le pense ‘ He thinks so.’ 

Notre 4.— To a disjunctive pronoun is often appended the emphatic -méme 

‘self’ (107): e.g. moi-méme ‘myself,’ vous-méme (or -mémes) ‘ yourself (or 
-selves).’ 


101. THE PRONOMINAL PARTICLES en AND y. — With 


the conjunctive pronouns are also reckoned the particles en 
(Lat. inde) ‘thereof = of it, of them’ and y (Lat. ibi) ‘to it, 
to them,’ which are used as a genitive and a dative case re- 
spectively of the 3d person, in either gender or number, with 
reference to things (exceptionally with reference to persons, 
especially if understood in an indefinite sense; or to personified 
objects). — Ex. 


Il en parle. He speaks of it. 

Laissez ce livre (ces livres), Leave this book (these ne: 
jen ai besoin. I need it (them). 

Voila du papier, prenez- There is paper, take some ai 
en. of it). | 

Vos raisons sont bonnes, je Your reasons are good, I yield 
avy rends. to them. 

Je m’y fie. I rely on it. 


102. POSITION OF THE CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN. 
A. Unlike English, French usually places the conjunctive 
pronouns, whether construed as subjects or objects, immediately 


I , 





102.} 3 PRONOUNS. 51 


before the verb: e.g. je /e vois ‘I see him’; fe vous /e donne. 
‘I give it to you’; je ne /e vois pas ‘I do not see him,’ 

In two constructions, especially, they follow the verb immedi- 
ately, as in English, being then appended to it by a hyphen, viz.: 

a. The subject-pronoun (je, tu, etc.) in interrogative clauses . 
e.g. aije? ‘have 1’; Pavez-vous ‘have you it?’ | 

b. The object-pronoun (me, te, etc.) in affirmative im- 
perative-clauses — me, te being then, however, changed to mor, 
toi, except before en —; e.g. donne-le ‘give it’ (but ne /e donne 
pas ‘give it not’); donnez-le-/ui ‘give it to him’; aimez-mo/ 
‘love me,’ donnez-mo/ ‘give me,’ donnez-m’en ‘ give me some.’ 

B. Of several object-pronouns those of the 3d person come 
nearest the verb (whether before or after). Of the latter, if 
more than one occur, the order of sequence is 1. se, 2. /e (Ja, les), 
3. lui (leur).—Ex. il me le donne ‘he gives it to me’; donnez- 
le-moi; je le lui donne ‘I give it to him’; donnez-/e-leur ‘ give 
it to them’; i se /e promet ‘he pronyses it to himself.’ 

The pronominal particles en, y always follow other conjunc- 
tives: e.g. il m’en donne ‘he gives me some’; donne-m’en ‘ give 
me some’; il lui en donne ‘he gives him some’; donne-leur en 
‘give them some.’— En follows y: envoyez-y-en ‘send some there.’ 

Farther examples to 102: 


Il Paime. : He loves him (her). 

Aimez-le (-/a). Love him (her). 

Il me donne un livre. He gives me a book, 

Aimez-moi (acc.). Love me. 

Donnez-moi (dat.) un livre. Give me a book. 

Ne Paimez pas. Do not love him. 

Elle me I’a donné. She has given it to me, 

Il le lui dira. He will tell it to him (her). 

Il vous en parle. He speaks to you of it. 

Donnez-le-moi, s'il vous Give it to me, if you please 
plait. (lit. if it pleases you). 

Envoyez-les-leur. Send them to them. 


rom, 
sgt ae 
es ee ae 


a ee - SECOND PART. [ 102-105. 
- Il se Pest promis. He has promised it to himself. 

Je le lui ai donné. I have given it to him. 

Je lui en parle. I am speaking to him about it. 

Il s’en amuse. He is amused at it. 

Elle leur y en enverra. _ She will send them some there. 

Dites-le-lui. : Tell it to him. 

Donnez-m’en (nous en) Give me some (us some). 

Conduisez-nous-y. Take us there (or to it). 

Je vous y en enverrat. I will send you some there. 


For farther details, see Syntax, 254-6. 


103. THe REFLEXIVE EXPRESSION. — French differs in its 
reflexive expression from English, the general principle being 
as follows: 


[104.] Preceded by no Preposition, the unemphatic re- 
flexive for the 1st and 2d person is simply the object-form of 
the conjunctive personal pronoun (me ‘me’ = ‘myself’: ace. 
or dat.; fe, nous, vous), while for the 3d person se is used for 
sing. or plur. (‘himself, herself, themselves’: ace. or dat.). — 
Ex. Je me loue ‘I praise myself (lit. me).’ JI (elle) se loue ‘He 
(she) praises himself (herself).’ 

If the reflexive is emphatic (as in ‘ He praises himself!’), 
the pronoun is repeated after the verb in its disjunctive form, 
usually (though not necessarily) strengthened by an added , 
~méme. — ix. Je me loue moi-méme ‘I praise myself’ (lit. ‘I | 
praise me myself’). J/ se parle a lui-méme ‘He speaks to | 
himself’ (@ lwi-méme because se is in the dat.; about lui for soi 
ef. note, 105). 

[105.] Preceded by a preposition, the reflexive is the dis- 
junctive form alone, usually (though not necessarily) strength- ) 
ened. by'-méme. — Ex. Je pense & moi-méme ‘I think of myself,’ 
Nous parlons de nous-mémes ‘ We speak of ourselves.’ 
Nore.— Soi (so/-méme) is rarely used except in the singular, and in 


general statements. In other cases the personal object-forms /us, e//e, 
eux, elles are preferred. -— Ex. Chacun pense @ soi (or soi-méme) ‘ Every- 





~ 


Cw es ee ee 


105, 106.) PRONOUNS. 53 


body thinks of himself.’ Za vertu’est aimable en soi ‘ Virtue is lovable in 
itself.” On doit rarement parler de soi ‘One ought seldom to speak of him- 
self.’ — But: Les guerres entrainent des maux avec elles ‘ Wars bring evils 
with them.’ J (elle) ne songe qu’a lui (elle) -méme ‘ He (she) thinks only of 
himself (herself).’ 


POSSESSIVES. 


106.— The Possessives are either a. adjectives or b. pronouns 
(cf. 98). 



































a. Adjectives b. Pronouns 
(combined with a noun) : (construed as nouns) : 
Nemes. | Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. 
. Sing. | mon | ma (or mee = le mien la mienne ) =. 
o-|\Pl. mes ‘< | les miens | les miennes § 4 
a 2 En 
> 1 Sing.| ton | ta (or ton) ) =| /e tien la, tienne 5 - 
B ri. tes “| les tiens | les tiennes $& 
Z 
< | \E e 
Sing. | son | sa (or son) |2| le sien la siewne |= 
PL ses - {21 les siens | les siennes {3 
i & ee 
g | Sing. notre)... le notre la notre 3 
Spr tk, nos \ les notres rs 
a 
2 Sing. | eulig one le votre | la vdtre 3 
‘ 1 Pl. y les vdtres 5 
< 
a | sj | le | | ta 7 : 
: Sing. BUF. shots e /eur a leur z 
on | Pl. leurs les leurs 5 

















~ 


Nort 1. — The adjective feminine-forms mon, ton, son are 
used before a vowel or h ‘ mute’: — Ex. mon dme (f.) ‘my soul’ ; 
mon histoire (f.) ‘my history.’ 

[ Ma, ta, sa are the regular feminine forms,and were formerly, like the 
definite article Ja, abbreviated to m’, t’, s’ before a vowel-sound, a con- 


54 SECOND PART. [106, 107. 


struction which has survived in the expressions m’amour, m’amie (also, 
incorrectly, ma mie), and tante (for t’ante?). The anomalous feminine 
forms mon, ton, son, introduced in the 12th century, became regular in 
the 14th. ] 


Notre 2.— When the pronoun-forms are preceded by de or a, 
the usual contractions, according to 41, take place. — Ex. du 
mien (for de le mien), au mien (for & le mien), ete. 

Nore 3.— Two possessive adjectives cannot determine one noun. Thus, 


instead of Mon et ton frére, we must say mon frére et le tien ‘my brother and 
thine.’ 


DEMONSTRATIVES. 


107. The Demonstratives are either a. adjectives or b. pro- 
nouns (cf. 98). 








a. Adjectives b. Pronouns 
(combined with a noun): (construed as nouns): 
Nom. Masc. Fem. Mase. Fem. 





Sing. | ce (cet) this, that cette celui this, that (one) | celle 





Pil. . % ces ceux these, those celles 
these, those (ones) 
Nore. — To the noun deter- Notr.— Except when fol- 


mined by this pronoun may | lowed by a relative pr. or de, 
be suffixed -c/ ‘here’ or -/a | these pronouns regularly take 
‘there’ to denote nearness | the suffix -c/ ‘here’ or -/a 
or remoteness. — Ex. ce vin-ci | ‘there,’ denoting nearness or 
‘this wine,’ cette jfille-la ‘that | remoteness. — Ex. Ceux-ci sont 
girl.’ bons ‘ these are good.’ 





Sing. neut. ce this, that, it 
(comp. ceci, cela or ¢a: 
cf. note 2) 








Se . lee same, self (cf. note 4) 

















107, 108.] PRONOUNS. 55 


Nore 1.— The adjective masculine form ce is used before 
consonants, aml cet (the more original form: cf. 96, C) before 
vowels and h ‘mute.’ The plural (ces) comes from ce and the 
feminine (cette) from cet. Cf. 73. — Ex. ce garcon ‘this boy’ ; 
cet enfant ‘this child,’ cet homme ‘this man’; ees gar¢gons (or 
Jjilles) ‘these boys (or girls)’; cette jille ‘this girl.’ 


Nore 2.— The pronoun-form ce (aloné,or compounded with -ci ‘ here’ 
and -/a ‘there’ to cec/, cela or by contraction ga), refers to an unnamed 
object or to a sentence, expressed or understood. — Ex. Ce qu’il dit est vrai 
‘What (That which) he says is true.’ C'est bon ‘That is good’ (viz. some- 
thing already spoken of, or pointed to). Voulez-vous ceci ou cela? ‘Do you 
wish this or that? Ce/a (or Ca) veut dire. . . ‘That means...’ 

' Note 3.— Méme (mémes), masc. or fem., is either a pronominal adjec- 
tive, being placed before its noun in the sense of ‘same’ or after it in 
sense of ‘self-same, very’: e.g. /e méme homme ‘the same man’; ses gestes 
mémes ‘his very gestures ’;—or it is a pure pronoun, being used independ- 
ently in the sense of ‘same,’ or suffixed to a disjunctive personal pronoun 
in sense of ‘-self, -selves’: e.g. son livre est le méme ‘his book is the same’ ; 
il s’aime lui-méme ‘he loves himself.’ 

In sense of ‘even,’ méme is an adverb, and invariable. 

Nore 4.— The definite article in its original use as a determinative is 
sometimes met with. — Ex. N’’agis pas de /a sorte ‘ Do not act in that manner.’ 


INTERROGATIVES. 


108. The Interrogatives are either a. pronominal adjectives 
or b. pure pronouns (cf. 98). 























a. Adjectives b. Pronouns 
(combined with a noun): | (construed as nouns) : 
Nome. Mase. Fem. Masc. | Fem. 
Referring to persons or a. Referring to persons or 
things: things : 
Sing. | gue/ | who? | quelle lequel which one? | laquelle 
Py}. quels | bol eet quelles | lesquels which ones ? | lesquelles 











56 SECOND PART. [108, 109. 


b. Referring to persons alone: 
Sg. and pl. gui wlio (Acc. whom)? 





c. Referring to things alone: 


Conjunctive (cf. 100) gue 


2 
Disjunctive guol nie 

















Nore 1.— In lequel, etc., le is nothing but the definite arti. 
cle, and it is contracted in the usua] way (21) with a preceding 
deorda. Hence de lequel = duquel, a lequel = auquel, de lesquels 
= desquels, ete. 

Notre 2.— The interrogative qui is singular or plural, nom- 
inative (‘who’) or accusative (‘ whom’). 

Nore 5.— Que and quoi supplement one another as conjunctive and 
disjunctive forms (cf. 100). Que occurs in the nominative only after verbs 
of condition (étre,devenir, etc.). Quoi is used after prepositions and abso- 
lutely (without verb) in exclamation and interrogation. — Ex. Qu’est-ce ? 
‘What is it?’ Que dit-il? ‘What does he say?’ De quoi parlez-vous? 
‘Of what do you speak?’ Quoz! ‘ What!’ 

Note 4.— About the use of ow as a pronoun, cf. 111. 


RELATIVES. 
109. The Relatives are all 


Pronouns 
(following the word or words referred to) : 


Ae 





Masc. | Fem, 





Sing. and pl.}| Nom. gu/ 
(Ace. que ; after preposition gui) | who, which, 





Sing. lequel laquelle that 
im) lesquels lesquelles 
Sing. (Neut.) guo/ ‘what,’ dis}. (te. after preposit’n) 














Exceptionally /egue/ (laquelle, etc.) is used adjectively before a noun. 


110, 111.] PRONOUNS. 57 


110. The relatives gu/, /eque/ differ from the interrogative 
in the following respects: 

Qui: a. It has the direct object-form gue (except when used 
absolutely without reference to any preceding word, as in Qui 
jaime, je Vaime bien ‘Whom I love, I love well’). — 6. It may 
be used for both persons or things, except after prepositions, 
where, like the interrogative, it can refer only to persons. 

Legue/ ‘ which,’ less often ‘who,’ is rarely used except after 
prepositions, or for purposes of more specific distinction of gen- 
der or number in case of doubtful reference (276. a). 


111. THE PRONOMINAL PARTICLES dont AND ou.— Dont 
(Lat. de-unde) ‘whence’ is often used for de with a relative in 
sense of ‘of (from) which, of whom, whose’; and od (Lat. ub?) 
is generally used for @ (or dans) and a relative or interrogative 
with reference to place or time, in sense of ‘where, when, to 
which.’— Ex. L’homme dont (= de qui) vous parlez est mort 
‘The man of whom you speak is dead.’ La maison ow (= dans 
laquelle) je loge ‘The house where (in which) I live.’ 

Nore 1.— ‘Whose’ (‘of which’) is rendered by dont, or, 
after a preposition, by dugue/ (de laquelle, etc.). The con- 
struction of the sentence is in both cases the same as if ‘of 
whom’ (etc.) were used in English, observing that dont must 
head the relative clause. — Ex. Le fils dont le pére est malade 
‘The son whose father is sick.’ L’homme avec le fils duquel 
vous étes arrivé ‘The man with whose son you have arrived.’ 


Notre 2.— D’ou means ‘whence’ and par ow ‘by which, where.’ 


58 


SECOND PART. 


INDEFINITES. 


[112 


112. The Indefinites are of three kinds, viz. : — 


a. Adjectives 


(combined with a noun) : 


ae ST 


b. Pronouns 


A. 


(construed as nouns) : 











Pl. quelques 


some, or a few 


Pl. quelques-uns 
some 

S. quelque chose 
something 





Masc. AND Fem. Mase. Fem. 
S. chaque S. chacun chacune 
each, every each, every (one) 
S. gue/que S. guelgu’un quelqu’une 
some somebody, anybody 


quelques-unes 





S. guelconque 
(after its noun) 
whatever 

Pl. quelconques 


S. gui, guiconque 
whoever 











S. on (Von) one, people 


S. autru/s (m.) others 


S. personne (m.) anybody (indefinite) ; 
nobody, us’ly with ne 


S. rien (m.) anything; nothing, 


us’ly with ne 


S. Pun Pautre 


Pl. les wns les autres 


Vune l'autre 
les unes les autres 


| 





19430 Yqove 


—_ - 22 oe 


112.] PRONOUNS. 59 


c. Adjectives or Pronouns. 


. nul, f. nulle (rarely pl.) no, none: us’ly with ne 
. aucun, f. aucune (rarely pl.) any one (with ref. to a 
distinct noun); no, nobody, none, usually with ne 


BB 


S. m. tout, f. toute every, all, everything 

Pl. m. tous, f. toutes all 

Prt (tne felt ole such, wn tel such a (one) 

Pl. m. tels, f. telles 

S. m. /’un et l'autre, f. Pune et autre both 

Pl. m. les uns et les autres, f. les unes et les autres both kinds 


S. m. f. p/usfeurs several — 











Notre 1.— As seen above, about one half of the indefinite pronouns do 
not distinguish gender and number. 

Note 2.—The adjectives — as also the pronouns if referring to a pre- 
ceding or following noun—may be used indifferently for either persons 
or things. But pronouns used absolutely refer to persons alone, tout and 
rien excepted, which have a neuter sense. 

Notte 3.—L’on for on. —It is customary, though largely 
optional, to insert a euphonic 7? before on when preceded by 
a word ending in a vowel-sound, especially by et, si, ow, ow, 
que. — Ex. si lon dit; et (¢ always silent) on dit. On, how- 
ever, is preferred, if followed by an J/-sound: e.g. si on V’a dit; 
and gu’on is preferred to que Von, except before a k-sound: 
e.g. guon dit; que lon commence. : 

This 7, though now purely euphonic, is virtually the definite article, 
which was once freely used before on, as by origin a noun (Lat. homo). 

Note 4.—Aucun, personne, rien.— Aucun (adj., or pron. 
referring to a distinct noun) ‘any one, anybody,’ personne 
(pron. used indefinitely) ‘anybody,’ and rien ‘anything,’ are 
usually construed with ne (placed before the verb) ‘not,’ and 
mean then resp. ‘no, no one;—nobody;—nothing.’ This 
meaning they also have, by ellipsis, without ne whenever the 
verb is omitted, and in certain phrases, — Ex. 


60 SECOND PART. f112, 113. 


Aucun ami ne me reste. No friend remains for me. 

Il waime aucune de ces filles. He loves no one of these girls. 

Il n’aime personne. He loves nobody. | 

Je n'ai rien. | I have nothing. 

— Qui vient? Personne. Who comes? Nobody. 

A quoi pensez-vous? A What are you thinking of? 
rien. Nothing. 

Dieu a créé le monde de rien God has created the world of 
(rien here noun). nothing. 


Notre 5.— Tout may mean ‘every, any, all, whole, everything’ (as 
adverb ‘ wholly’) according to its construction, as described in the Syntax. 
For further particulars about the indefinite pronouns, cf. Syntax. 


soe lgeipnins nes 
VIII. 


VERBS. 


[il3. HISTORY. — The Latin verb appears in French considerably 
remodelled, but its forms have not suffered such a sweeping reduction as 
those of other parts of speech. The actual loss of a synthetic form (like 
amor ‘I am loved,’ etc.) is generally compensated for by the use of verb- 
phrases (je suis aimé ‘I am loved,’ etc.), or, exceptionally, by the creation 
of a new synthetic form (like aimer-ai: cf. A). The more important 
features of the French verbs as compared with the Latin are those 
described below. 

A. General Remodelling. All the synthetic forms of the passive 
—its past participle (Lat. amatus: Fr. aimé) alone excepted —are lost in 
French. The passive voice is there made periphrastically, as in English, 
by the aid of the auxiliary étre ‘be’ (Lat. amari: Fr. étre aimé ‘be loved ’) 
—a practice not uncommon already in vulgar Latin. Some of the past 
tenses in the active are also, in like manner, expressed by the aid of the 
auxiliary avoir ‘have’ (Lat. amaveram: Fr. j’avais aimé ‘I had loved’). — 
Farther, the supine has disappeared, the gerund has coalesced with the 
present participle, and the deponent verbs have all assumed active 
forms (Lat. imitari: Fr. imiter, inflected like aimer). 

The Latin form for the future is also lost in French; but it is replaced 
by another synthetical future form. Already in the vulgar Latin of the 


6th century, the expression amare habeo ‘I have to love’ had almost en- 
« 


113.] VERBS. 61 


tirely supplanted the regular future amabo ‘I shall love.’ The Romance 
tongues all adopted this manner of expressing futurity, and in French the 
two elements (aimer + ai) early coalesced into one (aimerai, ai retaining, 
in the main, its own inflexion). Their independent value then faded out 
of memory, and the composite nature of the future was rediscovered only 
about a century ago. — Similarly the French conditional, which has no 
exact equivalent in Latin, was formed from the phrase amare habebam 
(in Fr. aimer-ais ‘I should love’). 

Of Latin synthetical forms there remain in French the present, imper- 
fect, and perfect indicative (Lat. amo, amabam, amavi: Fr. aime, aimais, 
aimaz), the present and pluperfect subjunctive (Lat. amem, amavissem: Fr. 
aime, aimasse), the imperative (ama; aime), the infinitive (amare; aimer), 
and the present and past participles (acc. amantem, amatum : aimant, aimé). 

Personal endings are in French distinguished, in the main, as in 
Latin, allowing, of course, for phonetic changes, and for certain tenden- 
cies toward uniformity, as that reducing the Lat. endings of the 1st pl. 
present, -amus, -emus, -imus, into one, -ons (virtually from neither, but 
from -umus as in sumus).— Among more anomalous changes may be men- 
tioned here: by analogy, apparently, with the 2d singular of personal 
tenses, an organic s (or, x, after au, eu) was added to the Ist singular 
present and preterit of most verbs outside of the I conjugation (e.g. Lat. 
rimpo: Fr. romp-s), unless, indeed, the stem already terminated in -s (e.g. 
pres. jfin-is: cf. below); to the Ist singular imperfect (hence also condi- 
tional) of all verbs (e.g. Lat. rumpebam: Fr. rompai-s); and to 2d sing. 
imperative of re-verbs, most oir-verbs, and er-verbs before en (e.g. Lat. 
rumpe: Fr. romp-s; Lat. recipe: Fr. regoi-s ; Lat. dona: Fr. donne, but don- 
nes-en, cf. 127). This s has persisted in the language in spite of the efforts 
of authors like Corneille, Molitre, Racine, and others to have it removed. 

Further, the ending -t, characteristic of the 3d person sing. in Lat. 
(ama-t, etc.) is in French lost in the present and preterit indicative of 
verbs of the first conjugation, and in the future indicative and present 
subjunctive of all verbs (e.g. pres. z/ aime, pret. i] aima, fut. il aimera, etc.). 
Only before a following subject-pronoun this ¢ is restored, in analogy with 
forms preserving it, but it is then written as if simply euphonic (e.g. a-t-ii, 
aime-t-il, aima-t-il, etc.). 

B. Conjugations. Historically, the French verbs may be divided into 
a living and a dead conjugation. The former, comprising, originally, 
derivatives of Latin verbs in -are and -ire, has, from the oldest times, been 
encroaching on the latter, and has also appropriated all new verbs formed 
within the language from its own resources or borrowed from without, and 
made all theseeeonform to one of its two models of inflection. The latter 


62 SECOND PART. [113, 114. 


comprising, originally, Latin verbs in -ere, -ére, now consists of such of 
these verbs, besides a few others, as have not yielded to the unifying 
tendencies of the ‘living’ or growing and encroaching conjugation. 

It is natural that the living conjugation, comprising more than four-fifths 
of all French verbs, and implying only two models of inflection, should 
also be called the regular; but it is customary to count to the regular 
verbs also one large group of the other conjugation, viz. verbs in -re, the 
great majority of these being inflected regularly according to one model. 
As irregular are counted all verbs that do not conform to any of the three 
models of the Regular conjugation. 

The infinitive of French verbs can end only in -er, -/r, -re, or -o/r. 

Verbs in-er (amounting to about 6500 out of the whole number of about 
7500 French verbs) included at first only Latin verbs in -are. Later, 
however, many Latin verbs in -ére and -ére, and a number of Germanic, 
and of new-created verbs, have been added to the -er class. All, except 
aller, envoyer, follow one model of conjugation. 

Verbs in -ir (amounting to more than 600) consist of Lat. verbs in -ire, 
and also, by transfer, of several Latin verbs in -ére, -ére, -escére, (-iscére), 
as well as of Germanic, and new-created verbs.. In their inflection most of 
them have been greatly influenced by the verbs in -escere (-iscere). The 
inchoative syllable -esc- (-isc-) of these verbs, in French changed to /s(s), 
has entered into the present-forms (the infinitive excepted) and the imper- 
fect indicative of the great majority of the ir-verbs (only 24 simple verbs 
having resisted its intercalation): e.g. Lat. florescimus: Fr. fleurissons ; 
but also Lat. fintmus: jfinissons ; Lat. dgimus: Fr. agissons, etc. The in- 
choative syllable (no longer imparting an inchoative sense) is iss whenever 
followed by a vowel, otherwise 7(s): hence floresco: fleuris; florescit: 
fleurit ; dgo: ag-is, ete. 

Verbs in -re (amounting to about 325) come from Latin verbs in -ére or 
-ere. About two-thirds of these follow one model of conjugation. 

Verbs in -o’r (55) come from Latin verbs in -ére or -ére. All the primary 
verbs in -oir differ more or less in their mode of conjugation. ] 


114. With regard to their use, French verbs, like English, 
are either Transitive (‘going over’ to, affecting some object : 
i.e.) having a direct object, or Intransitive, accompanied by 
no direct object. In special uses these verbs may be either 
Reflexive, having a reflexive pronoun as their (direct or indi- 
rect) object, or Impersonal, having the indefinite (‘non-per- 
sonal’) i ‘it’ for their subject. . 





115-118.] VERBS. 63 


115. The conjugation of a verb involves, as in English, a 
distinction of Voice, Mood, Tense, Number and Person. 

For their form and meaning the student is referred directly 
to the paradigms below. : 


116. CLASSIFICATION OF FRENCH VERBS. — The classifi- 
cation of verbs for practical purposes-means nothing more 
or less than their arrangement in such a manner as to be most 
easily learned. This is accomplished by so grouping that the 
greatest number possible may be conjugated by the aid of as 
few type-verbs as practicable, each representing a regular con- 
jugation, while the remaining verbs as irregular are treated by 
themselves. 

Nore 1.— The same principle of classification to some extent may be 
applied also to the irregular verbs. Thus, as will be seen, 30 verbs in 
-indre, 4 in -oir, and so on, are all conjugated precisely alike, though 
treated as irregular. 

[Nore 2.— Verbs that are regular or irregular according to the actual 
state of the language may from an historical point of view be the very 
opposite. Many regular verbs have in fact deviated from their old conjuga- 
tion, while many irregular verbs have adhered to it. The actual and the 
historical point of view should not be confused. 

A good historical classification of the French verbs, based on their 
own vitality as models, not on their adherence to old models (cf. 113, B), 
and adopted in recent historical grammars (Brunot, Clédat, etc.), is that 
of A. The Living Conjugation (“/a conjugaison vivante”), including -er 
and root-extending -ir verbs (119, a), and B. The Dead Conjugation 
(“la conjugaison morte”), including -re, -oir, and radical -ir verbs. — The 
practical classification followed below (nearly coinciding with the above 
_ historical) is that adopted by Matzner and some other recent authorities. | 


117. The French verbs are most conveniently classified, 
according to the termination of their infinitives as follows: 


{118.] Ist or er-Class, comprising all verbs — about 6500 
out of the 7500 in the language —whose infinitive ends in 
er: e.g. aim-er ‘ love.’ 

Irregular. Only two verbs of this class (aller ‘go, envoyer send’) are 


irregular. 
2 


64 SECOND PART. [119-122. 


(119.] IId or /r-Class, comprising all verbs — more than 600 
— whose infinitive ends in -ir: e.g. fin-ir ‘finish.’ These verbs 
are of two distinct sorts, viz. : 

a. Regular or Root-extending ir-verbs, which all — about 550 
—in their present forms (the subjunctive and imperative in- 
cluded, but the infinitive excepted) and in their imperfect indic- 
ative extend the root by adding to it the syllable iss or is (of 
inchoative origin, cf. 113, B) : e.g. fin-is(s)- instead of simply jin-. 

b. Irregular or Radical ir-verbs, whose root-form is never extended. 
Nearly 90 verbs (only 24 simple) belong to this division. Being divided, 


in their turn, into several discordant groups (cf. 159, 160), they are all 
classified as irregular. 


[120.] IIId or re-Class, comprising all verbs —about 325 st 
whose infinitive ends in -7e: e.g. romp-re ‘ break.’ 


Irregular. About a third of these verbs (36 simple) deviate more or less 
from the model verb, and are, in their turn, subdivided into discordant 
groups (cf. 159 d, 160). 


[121.] IV th or o/r-Class, comprising all verbs — about 55 — 
whose infinitive ends in -oir: e.g. recevoir ‘receive.’ As all 
the primary verbs of this class have some peculiarity of their 
own, the whole class is treated as irregular (cf. 160, d). 

Nore. — In some grammars, especially French, verbs in -oir are classified 
as forming the IIId regular conjugation (those in -re then forming the 
IV th). Its model verb is recevoir ‘receive,’ a compound of re- and the 
primary verb -cevoir (Lat. capere), which is not in use alone: cf. 161. 
Recevoir, however, serves as a perfect model only for other compounds of 
-cevoir (4), and in the main for devoir. 


The regular and irregular verbs will be described separately 
below. 

REGULAR VERBS. 

122. SIMPLE VERB-FORMS.— The simple verb-forms (i.e. - 
those made without the aid of independent auxiliaries, as in 
English love, loved) are made by adding to different stems of 
the verb certain endings. These endings (in the paradigms 
below marked by heavy type) are with few exceptions iden- 
tical for all verbs, 


ween eS 
ne ieee 


123.] VERBS. 65 


123. As model-verbs for the three regular verb-classes may 
serve: I. aim-er ‘love’; II. fin-ir ‘finish’; III. romp-re ‘break.’ 

Verbs of the I and III conjugation have two stems: one the 
radical [aim-, romp-], and the other the infinitive [a/m-er-, 
romp-r- (or romp-re-) |. Those of the II have, besides, one in 
-is(s) [fin-, fin-ir-, fin-is(s)-]. 


INDICATIVE 
ye A Present 
S. 1. jfaim-e je fin-is* je romp-s 
I love (am loving, I finish, etc. I break, etc. 
do love) 
2. tu aim-es tu fin-is tu romp-s 
3. i aim-e il fin-t-t a romp-t ? 
Pl. 1. nous aim-ons nous fin-iss-ons nous romp-ons 
2. vous wim-ez vous fin-iss-ez VOUS TOMp-EZ 
3. ils aim-ent ils fin-iss-ent ils romp-ent 


Imperfect (Passé Descriptif) 


~ 
S. 1. faim-ais® je fin-iss-ais je romp-ais 
I loved (was loving, I finished, ete. I broke, etc. 
did love) 
2. tu aim-ais tu fin-iss-ais tu romp-ars 
3. i aim-ait il fin-iss-ait il romp-ait 
Pl. 1. nous aim-ions nous fin-iss-ions nous romp-ions 
2. vous aim-iez vous fin-iss-iez vous romp-iez 
3. ils aim-afent ils fin-iss-aient _—_ ils romp-aient 
Preterit (Passé Narratif) 
8S. 1. faim-ar® je fin-is' je romp-i$ 
I loved I finished I broke 





1 For the different origin of the Pres. and the Pret. jinis, ef. 113, B. 

2 This t is always dropped after c, d, ¢t (i.e. in nearly all verbs of 
III conjugation), as i/ vend (from vend-re ‘sell’) etc. 

3 In verbs az not final pronounced as é, but final as ¢ (cf. 15). 


66 


PY. 


whore & b 


PL 


Ww he Ww bb 


Pl. 


Oo he Gb 


2. 
3. 


. Paim-er-ai} 


. tu aim-er-as 

. tl aim-er-a 

. nous aim-er-ons 
. VOUS Aim-er-ez 
. ils aim-er-ont 


. Paim-er-ais } 


. tu aim-er-ais 

. tl aim-er-alt 

. NOUS aim-er-ions 
. vous aim-er-ez 
. tls aim-er-aient 


. faim-e 


SECOND PART. 


. tu aim-as tu fin-Is 

. i aim-a al fin-it 

. nous aim-dmes nous fin-imes 

. vous aim-ates vous fin-ites 

. tls aim-erent ils fin-irent 
Future 


je fin-ir-at 
I shall (will) love 
tu jfin-tr-as 

il fin-tr-a 
nous fin-ir-ons 
vous fin-ir-ez 
ils fin-ir-ont 


Conditional 
je jin-ir-ais 


I shall (will) finish 


[123. 


tu romp-Is 

il romp-it 

nous romp-imes 
vous romp-ites 
ils romp-irent 


je romp-r-ai 

I shall (will) break 
tu romp-r-as 
il romp-r-a—s ¢ 
nous romp-r-Ons 
VOUS TOMpP-T-EZ 
ils romp-r-ont 


je romp-r-ais 


I should (would) love Ishould (etc.) finish Ishould (etc.) break 


tu fin-ir-ais 
il fin-ir-ait 


vous fin-ir-lez 
ils fin-tr-alent 


SUBJUNCTIVE” 
Present 
je jin-iss-e*® 
I love (may, shall 
love, etc.) 
tu aim-es 
il aim-e 


tu fin-iss-es 
il fin-iss-e 


nous fin-ir-ions 


I finished (etc.) 


tu romp-r-ais 

il romp-r-alt 
nous romp-r-i0ns 
VOUS TOMP-1-18Z 
ils romp-r-aient 


je romp-e 
I break (etc.) 


tu romp-es — 
il romp-e 





1 Cf.'foot-note 3 of page preceding. 
2 The subjunctive, generally dependent on some preceding expression, 
is variously rendered according to the varied sense of that expression (cf. 
256, etc.). 
8 For the different origin of the Pres. and Impf. finisse (cf. 115, B). 


193, 124.] 


Pi, 


. nous aim-ions 
. vous aim-iez 
. ils aim-ent 


. Paim-asse 


I loved (might, 
should love) } 


. tu aim-asses 
. taim-at 


nous aim-assions 


. vous aim-assiez 
. ils aim-assent 


VERBS. 


nous fin-iss-ions 
vous fin-iss-lez 
ils fin-iss-ent 


Imperfect 


je fin-isse * 
I finished (etc.) 


tu fin-isses 

il fin-it 

nous fin-issions 
vous fin-issiez 
ils fin-issent 


Imperative (Present) 


. aim-e love! 
. aim-ons let us love! 


aim-ez love! 


Jin-'s finish ! 
Jin-iss-ons 
Jin-iss-ez 


Infinitive (Present) 


aim-er (to) love 


aim-ant loving 


aim-é loved 


Jinm-ir finish 


PARTICIPLES 
Present 


67 


NOUS TOMp-IONS 
VOUS TOMpP-1eZ 
ils romp-ent 


je romp-isse 
I broke (etc.) 


tu romp-isses 

il romp-it 

nous romp-issions 
VOUS TOMP-I$Slez 
ils romp-issent 


romp-s break! 


romp-ons 
rOmp-eZ 


romp-re break 


Jin-iss-ant finishing romp-ant breaking 


Past 
jin-i finished 


romp-u broken 


124. The circumflex which occurs in the 1st and 2d pl. preterit and 3d 
sing. imperfect subj. of all French verbs denotes the loss of an Old French s. 
Thus, aimames is for amasmes (for amames = Lat. amavimus : s intercalated 
through the influence of the 2d pl.) ; aimdtes is for amastes (Lat. amavis- 
tis); and aimdt is for amast (L. amasset). 





1 See foot-note 1, p. 66. 


2 See foot-note 2, p. 66. 


68 SECOND PART. [ 125-129. 


125. PHONETIC AND ORTHOGRAPHIC CHANGES. — The 
following changes affecting the sound itself, or simply the 
manner of denoting it in writing, are to be observed, viz. : — 


[126.] £ mute and 6 are before a syllable containing an e 
“mute made open (= é, or e with a following / and ¢ doubled), 
according to 35, which see. — Ex. mener ‘lead’: pr. je méne, 
tu ménes, il mene; nous menons, vous menez, ils menent. fut. 
je ménerai, tu meneras, etc.—céder ‘yield’: pr. je cede, tu 
cedes, etc.; fut. je céderai (é, 35), etc.— appeler ‘call’: pr. 
jappelle, tu appelles, il appelle; nous appelons, vous appelez, 
ils appellent; fut. jappellerai. jeter ‘throw’: pr. je jette; 
fut. je jetterai. 

Norr. — Of verbs in -eler and -eter some double / and t, some take é, or 
both methods of expressing an open e are used for the same verb. Thus, 
out of 90 simple verbs, 48 double / and ¢ before the mute syllable, and of 
the remainder, 16 (note especially celer ‘hide,’ geler ‘freeze,’ peler ‘peel, 
harceler ‘harass’; acheter ‘buy,’ haleter ‘pant’) change e to e, while 20 
others (bosseler, becqueter, etc.) do.so in the present, but not in the future 
and conditional. 

[The doubling of / and ¢ is originally due to the existence of a double 
consonant in Latin (cf. ape//are, jactare), though this etymological prin- 
ciple is now disturbed in several cases. | 

[127.] Imperatives in -e (as well as the irregular va ‘ go!’) are extended 
by an s before an appended objective particle en or y (cf. 27, note 
5. b). — Ex. Donnes-en & Jean ‘Give some to John.’ Donnes-y tes soins 
‘Give thy attention to it.’ But Envoie en~chercher ‘Send to find some.’ 
Va en (prep.) France ‘Go to France.’ 

[As noted, p. 118, this s, which is regular in the 2d Imperative of re- 
verbs, has been added, in either case, in false analogy with the 2d sing. of 
the present indicative. — The s of ir-verbs belongs to the inchoative stem. | 


[128.] In future and conditional, e of -erai(s) is sometimes, though 
rarely, dropped if preceded by a vowel, which then takes the circumflex: 
thus, louerai or (chiefly in poetry) /otrat. 

[129.] a. Verbs in -cer and -ger change ¢ and g to ¢ and ge 
respectively wherever they would otherwise be hard (i.e. before 
a, at, 0).— Ex. menacer ‘threaten’: menagons ; menacais, 
etc.; manger ‘eat’: mangeons ; mangeais, etc. 


ae sa Se = 


129-135. ] VERBS. 69 


b. Verbs in -guer and -quer retain gu and qu even before a, 0, u.— 
Ex. fatiguer ‘tire’: fatiguais; manquer ‘fail’: manqguais. 


[180.] In vaincre the k-sound is written with gu before any vowel ex- 
cept u.— Ex. vainguant, vainguis, but vaincu. 


[131.] The semivowel y of an infinitive in -yer is usually changed to 7 
before e mute, this change being optional, however, after a and e.— Ex. 
noyer ‘drown’: pr. noje; payer ‘pay’: pr. pase or (less commonly) paye. 


1382. MINOR IRREGULARITIES. — The following verbs being 
almost regular (two of them entirely so in their usual sense) 
are conveniently described here : 


[183.] Conjugation IL: — 

1. Bénir ‘bless’ is in the past participle regularly béni, or irregularly benit 
in the sense of ‘ consecrated.’ 

2. Fleurir ‘blossom’ changes its root (fleur-) to flor- in the present par- 
ticiple and imperfect indicative (forissant, florissais, etc.), if used 
figuratively in the sense of ‘ flourish.’ 

3. Hair ‘hate’ drops its dieresis (6) in the singular of the 
present indicative and imperative (pr. ind. je ha/s, tu hais, 
i hait ; nous haissons, etc.; —impv. hais, haissons, etc.). _ 


[134.] Conjugation IIT: — 
The personal ending ¢ of the 3d sing. present: indicative is 
dropped after a radical ¢ (in vainere), d (occurring in most 
verbs of this conjugation), and ¢; and a radical é is in the 
singular of the present indicative and imperative reduced to ¢. 
— Ex. | 
1. vaincre ‘conquer’: ind. pr. je vaincs, tu vaincs, il vainc, etc., observing 
everywhere that c becomes qu before any vowel, except u (130): 
vainguons, vainguez, vainguent ; but vaineu: (cf. 161, list). 

2. vendre ‘sell’: ind. pr. je vends, tu vends, il vend, etc. 

3. battre ‘strike’: je bats, tu bats, il bat ; nous battons, ete. 


135. PRINCIPAL PARTS.—The Jnjinitive, Present Participle, 
Past Participle, Present Indicative, and Preterit are called the 


principal parts of a verb, because they may serve as key- 


70 SECOND PART. [135-137. 


forms, by the aid of which all other regular forms of a verb 
can be made out. , 

The method of such derivation is illustrated below by giving 
the principal parts of aimer and the forms made by their aid: 


Princ. Parts: DERIVED Forms: 
oud: ie ‘ 
i patie | ap aan den one J sais als (i.e. add ~ai after r). 
cond. j’a/mer-ais (i.e. add -ais after r). 


pr. subj. j’a/m-e (i.e. substitute -e for -ant). 

impf. ind. j’a/m-ais (i.e. sub. -ais for -ant). 

3. Past part. afmé: compound tenses, j’ai aimé, ete. 

4, Pr.ind. jaime ) 
(cf. note 1): 3) 


5. Pret. ind. ’aimai: ' 


2. Pr. part. aim-ant : | 


imp’ve aime throughout (cf. note 1). 


impf. subj. j’a/ma-sse (i.e. add -sse to the 
stem: cf. note 2). ? 


Nore 1.— As is already seen, the pl. of present ind. of ir-verbs is itself 
irregular, being virtually formed from the same stem as the present part. 
(pr. part. finiss-ant; pr. ind. pl. finiss-ons, etc.). —It is, indeed, helpful 
always to consider the pr. part. as the basis of the plural of the pres. 
‘ind. and imperat. in both regular and irregular verbs. 

Norse 2.— The -sse of the impf. subj. is added to the pret. stems aima-, 
Jini-, rompi- (i.e. the pret. without its last letter). 


136. ImpeERSONAL VerRBS.— The impersonal verbs are, in French as in 
English, used only in the 3d person singular with the impersonal subject 
il ‘it.’ Among the more common may be noted here: .i/ neige ‘it snows,’ — 
il géle ‘it freezes,’ il pleut (irreg.) ‘it rains’; 7 faut (irreg.) ‘it is neces- 
sary, i/ importe ‘it is of importance’; i/ semble ‘it appears’; 7 fait (irreg.) 
‘it is’ (lit. ‘it makes’ such and such weather); 7 y a ‘there is’: ete, 


137. COMPOUND VERB-FORMS (= Verb- Phrases), — By 
using the auxiliary verb avoir ‘have’ or étre ‘be,’ conjugated 
as usual, before the past participle of a verb, the compound 
active and all the passive forms are made. To describe these, 
we must therefore anticipate here the conjugation of two aux- 
iliaries, which properly belong to the irregular verbs. 


187.] 


Sing. 


ig 


Sing. 


jag 8 


Sing. 


Pi. 


Sing. 


~ 


ob e ob 


VERBS. 


Avoir have 
INDICATIVE 


Present 
jai 1 
I have (am having, 


do have) 


. tu as 


il a 


. nous avons 
. VOUS avez 
. ils ont 


Imperfect 


. favais* 


I had (was having) 


. tu avais 

. il avait 

. nous avions 
. vous aviez 

. tls avaient 


Preterit 


. jeus (pr. j’u: 15, under ev) 


Ihad 


. tu eus 


al eut 


. nous eames 
. vous eittes 
. ils eurent 


Future 


. Paurai' 


I shall (will) have 


. tu auras 
. al aura 


Etre be 


je suis 
Tam 


tu es 

al est 

nous sommes 
vous étes 

ils sont 


J éais* 


I was 
tu étais 
il était 
nous étions 
vous étiez 
ils étaient 


je fus 


I was, I became 


tu fus 

al fut 

nous faimes 
vous fates 


ils furent 


je serat? 


I shall (will) be 


tu seras 
il sera 


=T 





1 In verbs -ai final pronounced as ¢, but not final as e (ef. 15). 


% 


72 


Pi. 


Sing. 


Pi. 


Sing. 


Pi. 


Sing. 


hoe oo bb 


bo ee 


ict) 


whe w bo 


oo 


. Jeusse 


bo oo bo 


SECOND PART. 


. nous aurons 
. vous aurez 
. ils auront 


Conditional 


. faurais ' 


I should (would) have 


. tu aurais 
. tl aurait 
. nous aurions 


. vous auriez 
. tls auraient 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


Present 


. faie? 


I have (may or 
shall have) 


. tu aies 

. il att 

. nous ayons 
. Vous ayez 

. ils atent 


Imperfect 


I had (might, should 
have) 


. tu eusses 


il eat 


. NOUS eussions 
. VOUus eussiez 
. ils eussent 


(137 


NOUS serons 
Vous serez 
ils seront 


je serais } 

I should (would) be 
tu serais 
al serait 


nous serions 
VOUS Seriez 
ils seratent 


je sois 
I be (am, may or 
shall be), ete. 
tu sois 
il soit 
nous soyons 
VOUS SOYeR 
ils sotent 


je fusse 
I were (was, etc.) 


tu fusses 

al fat 

nous fussions 
vous fussiez 
ils fussent 





1 Cf. foot-note, p. 71. 


es 


137-189.] VERBS. 73 


IMPERATIVE 
Present 
Sing. 2. aie have! | sois be! 
Pl. 1. ayonsletus have! — soyons let us be! 
2. ayez have! soyez be! 
INFINITIVE 
Present 
avoir (to) have étre (to) be 
PARTICIPLES 
Present 
ayant having étant being 
Past 
eu (pr. u) had été been 


[138. HISTORY. — Avoir is from Latin habere, whose h is lost through- 
out, and whose } is changed to v (in fut. and cond. vocalized to wu), or 
lost. The future and conditional are, as usual, made from the infinitive 
(Old French aver- = av’r-, aur-), and the present or imperfect (-az, -ais). 

Etre has its forms from at least three different verbs: esse (vulg. Lat. 
essere = Fr. estre, étre) ‘be, stare (Old Fr. ester) ‘stand,’ and fui ‘ was.’ 
The derivation of étre from essere, suis etc. from sum (vulg. Lat. sui in 
analogy with fui) etc., and of fus, fusse from fui, fuissem is clear. As for 
the other forms scholars are not quite agreed: probably étant, eté from 
stant-em, sta-tum; étais from the radical est-; and possibly seraz, as in 
Spanish, from sedére ‘sit’ (seder-, ser-) 4+ ai (since essere, estre gave the 
old form estr-ai). 


139, THE Compounp Active TENSES are formed in 
French, on the same principles asin English, by the aid of 
an auxiliary, avo/r ‘have,’ and the past participle (about which 
ef. 141) of the main verb. — Thus, the compound tenses of 
aimer are : 


74 SECOND PART. [139, 140. 


INDICATIVE 
Comp. Present Comp. Preterit 
jai aimé I have loved jeus aimé I had loved 
tu as aimé thou hast loved 


Comp. Future 


ete. 
jaurat aimé I shall have loved 
Comp. Imperfect Comp. Conditional 
j avais aimé I had loved jaurais aimé I should have loved 


and so on. 


140. THE PAssivE Voice.— The passive tenses are also 
formed, as in English, by the aid of an auxiliary, étre ‘be,’ 
and the past participle (about which ef. 141) of the main verb. 
Each tense is termed like the corresponding tense of étre. 

The compound passive tenses are, as also in English, made 
by the compound active forms of étre (j'ai été, ete.) and the 
past participle of the main verb. 

Thus, the passive of aimer is: 


INDICATIVE 
Present 
SimpLE Passive TENSES: CompounpD PAsstvE TENSES: 


je suis aimé ‘Tam loved’ jai été aimé ‘I have been loved’ 
tu es aimé ‘thou art loved’ tuas été aimé ‘thou hast been loved’ 
etc. ete. 


IMPERFECT 


j étais aimé ‘I was loved’ j’avais été aimé ‘I had been loved’ 


a 


PRETERIT 


je fus aimé ‘I was loved’ j’eus été aimé ‘I had been loved ’ 
ete. ete. 


141, 142.] VERBS. T5 


141. The past participle (aimé, etc.) is in compound verb- 
forms changeable or unchangeable. The general principle is. 
that it agrees in gender and number with the word it qualifies, 
provided that word is already mentioned. Hence 
we have the following definite rule: 

a. IN ACTIVE CONSTRUCTION, the past participle agrees with 
a preceding (not a following) direct object: e.g. je ai (7 for le 
or la) aimé or aimée ‘I have loved him (or her)’; je /es (m. 
or f.) ai aimés or aimées ‘I have loved them.’ 

b. Ly PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION it agrees with the subject, even 
when by inversion (except after the impersonal 7) it follows 
the participle: e.g. elle est aimée ‘she is loved’; ils (elles) sont 
aimés or aimées ‘they are loved’; que bénie soit la main qui 
m’a sauvé! ‘blessed be the hand that has saved me!’; but, i a 
été fait une emplette (= une emplette a été faite) ‘a purchase has 
been made.’ 

Where in active construction there is no preceding object, the past 


participle remains unchanged: e.g. j’ai aimé cette fille ‘I have loved this 
girl.’ 


[HISTORY. — The past participle is a verbal adjective (cf.‘I have 
written the letter’ =‘I have the letter written’) and originally agreed 
with the word qualified, whatever its position (cf. Lat. habeo scriptam epis- 
tolam = j’ai écrite une lettre : now écrit). Gradually, however, the participle 
came to be looked upon as an unchangeable part of the verb; and after 
much uncertainty and variation of usage, the principle now followed, being 
virtually that it agrees with the word qualified if already mentioned before 
the participle, began to prevail in the 15th, and was established in the 18th 
century. | 


142. Etre FOR avoir.— A few intransitive verbs (chiefly 
of the irregular conjugation), denoting change of position or 
condition, are never compounded with avoir, but always with 
étre. — Ex. I/ est allé ‘He is (or has) gone.’ Ji est mort ‘He 
(has) died’ or ‘ He is dead.’ 

These verbs, grouped according to their meaning, are: 


76 _ SECOND PART. f142-146. 


aller ‘go’ tomber ‘fall’ 
partir ‘depart’ naitre ‘be born’ 
sortir ‘go out’ éclore ‘hatch’ 
arriver ‘arrive’ mourir ‘die’ 
entrer ‘enter’ décéder ‘decease’ 
venir ‘come’ 


[143.] About fifty other verbs of a similar kind are used (somewhat 
freely) with avoir when emphasizing a progress of the action expressed 
by the verb rather than its result, and with étre when the reverse is 
the case.— Ex. Il a grandi pendant ce temps ‘He has grown during this 
time.’ Ji est grandi ‘He has (is) grown.’ La procession a passé par ici 
‘The procession passed here.’ La procession est passée ‘The procession 
has passed.’ 


144. REFLEXIVE (or RECIPROCAL: 150) VERBs. —Transi- 
tive and intransitive verbs used with a reflexive pronoun in 
the acc. or dat. respectively are reflexive. The forms of the 
pronoun, alike for acc. and dat., are: sing. 1 me, 2 te, 5 se; 
pl. 1 nous, 2 vous, 3 se. 


[145.] The conjugation of the reflexive verb is as usual, 
observing : 

1. that the reflexive pronoun precedes the verb, except in 
the imperative affirmative, according to 102. E.g. il se flatie 
‘he flatters himself’; flatte-to/ ‘flatter thyself’ ; 

2. that the compound tenses are formed by the aid of the 
auxiliary 6fre, in English to be rendered by ‘have’: e.g. i 
s'est flatté ‘he has flattered himself’ ; 

3. that their past participle — as in compound active forms 
—agrees with a preceding direct object, if there be one: e.g. 
elle s’est flattée ‘she has flattered herself’ (se dir. obj.), but elle 
s’est dit ‘she (has) said to herself’ (se indir. obj. = datz). 


[146.] As an example of the reflexive conjugation may be 
given here se flatter ‘flatter one’s self.’ 


146, 147.] VERBS. 17 





INDICATIVE 
SmmpLe TENSES Compounp TENSES 
Present 
je me flatte je me, suis flatté(e) 8 
I flatter myself a 
tu te flattes tu Ves flatté(e) S 
thou flatterest thyself & 
il se flatte _ al (elle) s’est flatté(e) a 
he flatters himself @ 
oO 
nous nous flattons nous nous sommes flatté(e)s 3 
we flatter ourselves & 
vous vous flattez vous vous étes flatté (e)s o, 
you flatter yourselves *Y 
ils se flattent ils (elles) se sont flatté(e)s S 
they flatter themselves : : 
Imperfect 
je me fluttais je m'étais flatté(e) 
I flattered myself, etc. I had flattered myself, etc. 


Imperative: flatte-toi etc. flatter thyself, flattons-nous let us 
flatter ourselves, flatiez-vous flatter yourselves. 


[147.] As in English, so also in French several verbs are exclusively 
reflexive, while nearly all transitives may be used as such. Yet the re- 
flexive construction is much more common and important, and verbs that 
are habitually or frequently reflexive much more frequent in French 
than in English. As examples may be mentioned the following verbs 
(some of them irregular): s’arréter ‘stop,’ s’asseoir ‘sit down,’ se battre 
‘fight,’ se coucher ‘ go to bed,’ se douter ‘ suspect,’ s’écrier ‘cry out,’ s’écrouler 
‘crumble,’ s’écrire ‘ be written, write (to) one another,’ s’ennuyer ‘ be bored, 
feel lonesome,’ se facher ‘grow angry,’ se lever ‘rise, get up,’ se plaindre 
‘complain,’ se porter ‘be (in respect to health),’ se réjouir ‘rejoice,’ se taire 
‘be silent,’ s’en aller ‘go away’ (cf. 150 and 161 under aller). 

Nore. — It should be especially noticed that when English transitives 
have an identical or kindred intransitive form, the latter is regularly ren- 
dered in French by a reflexive. — Ex, ‘close’ (tr.) fermer, (intr.) se fermer ; 
‘raise’ lever, ‘rise’ se lever; etc. 


78 ; SECOND PART. (148-152. 


[148.] Many reflexive verbs followed by prepositions form expressions 
of special often transitive meaning in English. Examples are: s’upprocher 
de ‘approach,’ se douter de ‘suspect,’ s’entendre & ‘be a judge of,’ se passer 
de ‘do without,’ se servir de ‘ use.’ 


[149.] The reflexive pronoun is in French often a weakened dat. of 
relation (dativus commodi) or it has slipped in without assignable reason. 
Cf. s’en aller ‘go away’ (where se, however, is treated as an acc.: elle s’en 
est allée). 


[150.] Reciprocal Use or REFLExives. — Reflexive forms often denote 
reciprocity : 1/s s’aiment ‘they love one another; on se bat ‘ they are fight- 
ing’; aimons-nous ‘let us love one another.’ 


151. INTERROGATIVE FORMS, — In interrogative forms, 
the supject pronoun is placed after the personal verb-form, - 
as in English, but it is connected with it by a hyphen (e.g. 
ai-je ‘have 1?’). For the rest, it is to be noticed only that: 

a. A final -e of the verb is changed to é before the affixed 
pronoun — the two words being really treated as one (cf, 35). 
— Ex. aimé-je ‘do I love?’ 

b. When the 38d sing. terminates in a vowel (e, a) the lost 
etymological termination ¢ is, in analogy with forms preserv- 
ing it, added, though with a hyphen on either side, as if being 
nothing but a phonetic insertion (cf. 27, note 5). — Ex, aime- 
t-il? ‘does he love?’ 


Thus: 
INDICATIVE 
Present 
SrimpLE Forms Compounp Forms 
aimé-je? ‘do I love?’ ai-je aimé ‘have I loved?’ 


aimes-tu? ‘dost thou love?’ as-tu aimé? ‘hast thou loved ?’ 

aime-t-il? ‘does he love?’ _a-t-il aimé? ‘has he loved?’ 

aimons-nous? ‘do we love?’ avons-nous aimé? ‘have we loved?’ 
ete. ete. 


[152.] Instead of this direct interrogative construction, it is 
quite common to introduce a question by placing the phrase 
est-ce gue? ‘is it that?’ (pr. é’c’k*)—as ‘do’ is*placed in 


152-156.] VERBS. 79 


English — before the subject and the verb. — Ex. Est-ce que je 
romps? ‘Dol break?’ Est-ce que je Vaurais rompu? ‘Should 
I have broken it?’ 

Especially common is this circumlocution where euphony re- 
quires it (as when the 1st sing. of the present ends in two con- 
sonants or -ge), or in interrogations implying surprise or denial. 

Norre.—In the spoken language this circumlocution is more common 
than in the written, and in popular style used somewhat indiscriminately 
for any tense. 

153. NEGATIivE ForRmMs,—The simple negation ‘not’ is 
usually expressed by the aid of two words, viz. the negative 
particle ne (n’ before vowel or h ‘mute’) placed immediately 
before the personal verb or an object-pronoun preceding it, and 
the adverb pas (or the more emphatic po/nt) placed immediately 
after the personal verb-form.— Thus: je ne jinis pas (or point) 
‘T do not finish’; je n’ai pas jini ‘I have not finished’; i n’est 
point aimé ‘he is not loved.’ — For further rules see Syntax. 

[Notrr.— Pas and point (originally from Lat. passum ‘step’ and punctum 
‘point”) simply strengthen the real negative ne. Comp. English not = 
nought = na ‘not’ wiht ‘a whit.’] 

154. Neacative INteRROGATIVE Forms. — These are made by placing the 
negative particles, as above, before and after the interrogative form of 
the verb as described under 151.— Thus: n’aimé-je pas? (or est-ce que je 
n’aime pas?) ‘do I not love?’ n’aimes-tu pas? (or est-ce que tun’aimes pas?) 
‘dost thou not love?’—n’ai-je pas aimé? (or est-ce que je n'ai pas aimé ?) 
‘have I not loved?’ etc. 


IRREGULAR VERBS. 


155. Verbs deviating in their conjugation from those already 
described as regular are called irregular. 


156. Their irregularities, consisting mainly in a variation 
of the stem, make a difficult, but important, chapter in French 
accidence. Yet, by mastering a few guiding principles, and 
studying the irregular verbs in groups with reference to those 
principles, in the way explained below a good command of the 
whole field is readily gained. 


80 SECOND PART. [157-159. 


157. The irregular verbs may be referred to two large 
divisions : 

The First Division comprises verbs that have the same stem 
in their principal and derived parts, so that the latter can 
always be made, in accordance with the general rules of deri 
vation (135), from the former (e.g. inf. sentir: fut. sentir-ai ;_ 
pr. part. sent-ant: pr. subj. sent-e, and so on). 


The great plurality of the irregular verbs belong to this class. 


The Second Division comprises verbs that change the stem 
of their principal parts in some of the derived tenses, as de- 
scribed in 160: e.g. inf. devoir: fut. dev’r-ai; pr. part. dev-ant : 
pr. subj. dosv-e, 3 pl. pr. ind. do/v-ent). | 

No imperfect ind. (save savais) or subj. is ever irregularly derived, and 
no imperative, except va (of aller), veuille (of vouloir), and sache (of savoir). 


158. These two divisions with their sub-divisions are farther 
described below in 159-160, where the student can have an easy 
survey of their chief irregularities, while he should study in 
detail the verbs of each group separately, by referring to the 
alphabetical list of irregular verbs, § 161. 

(@- The student should notice that in each sub-division 
(A, B, etc.) below, the model-verbs are printed in bold type, 
others, conjugated like them, in ordinary type. For a first course 
he is advised to learn only the former, looking them up for each 
group in the alphabetical list § 161 (after understanding fully 
the principles of their description as explained under the head- 
ing of that list). — Knowing the key-verbs (altogether 47), it 
is an easy task to acquire those conjugated like them. 


[159.] THE First Division. — To this division belong 
a. all irregular ir-verbs (save those in -rir, -nir preceded by a 
vowel) ; b. all irregular re-verbs (save boire, faire). 

The tr-verbs all lack the stem-extending syllable -is(s): cf, 
119, b. No other irregularity is common to all ir- or re-verbs, 


159.] VERBS. 81 


The verbs of this division may be studied in the following 
order, groups A-E: 

A.—fuir, entirely regular, except that the stem is fui- ( fuy- 
36) in pres. part. and forms derivatives from it. 

B.—1n-verbs whose pres. ind., being the root (oftenest with- 
out its end-consonant) + s, follows the 8d conjugation, and 
which are otherwise regular (observing 159), except that vétir 
has the past part. vétu ; e.g. sent-ir: pres. ind. sen-s. These are : 
sentir': so also mentir, repentir, partir, sortir, servir ; — dormir 
(really like sentir); — vétir (pres. vét-s) ;— bouillir (pr. bou-s). 

C.—rr-verbs whose pres. ind. being the root + e, follows 
the 1st conjugation ; and whose past part., if the inf. ends in 
-rir, terminates in -ert: e.g. cowvrir: pres. ind. cowvr-e; past — 
part. cowvert. These are: cue//lir (pr. cueill-e), conveniently 
counted to this division though its fut. is cweillerai (with 
changed stem);—couvrir: so also owvrir, offrir, souffrir ; — 
assaillir (pr. assaill-e). 

D.—RreE-verbs having in their pres. part. anew consonant-sound 
(inherited from Latin) added to the root-vowel (e.g. di-re : pres. 
part. dis-ant) and supplanting any root-consonant following that 
vowel (e.g. nait-re: naiss-ant ; peind-re: peign-ant). — Verbs in 
-uire, -dre, and -crire also repeat the same sound in pret. ind. 

These verbs may be studied in the following order: 

1. s added to the root-vowel: all verbs in ~ire (exc. those 
in -crire and rire), viz. con-duire*® (and other compounds in 
-duire), con-struire (etc.), dé-truire, cuire, luire, nuire ;— dire ; 
— lire ; — suffire, confire ; — plaire, taire. 

2. ss supplanting final radical ¢: all verbs in -aitre,? -ottre,? 
viz. connaitre, paraitre, paitre ; — naftre ; — croitre. 





1 Compounds verbs (con-sentir, etc.), when conjugated like the simple, 
and also defective verbs are here omitted. (They are all described in the 
alphabetical list, 161). 

2 Written conduire. Hyphen here to separate prefix from radical. 

3 The circumflex, denoting loss of s, used when? is followed by ¢ (in croittre 
always, exc, before ss). For archaic -ottre instead of -aitre cf. 17 (07, n. 2). 


82 SECOND PART. [159, 160. 


3. § supplanting final radical d: coudre. 

4. /(v) supplanting final radical d: moudre ; — ré-soudre. 

5. gn supplanting final radical nd; all verbs in -ndre, viz. 
peindre, craindre, plaindre, ceindre, feindre, en-freindre, teindre, 
joindre. 

6. y added to the root vowel: all verbs in -crire, viz. éerire, 
dé-crire (and other compounds in -crire), in-scrire (and other 
compounds in -serire). 

Observe that of above verbs of the D-group, lire and those in -aire, -aitre 
(exe. naitre), and crottre, form, irregularly, their pret. in -us. 

EK. — rE-verbs with no new radical sound in the pres. part. : 

[past part. in i(s), pret. in is] rire ;— mettre ;— prendre; | 
—$uivre;—[past part. in u, pret. in us] crore ; —vivre ; — 
con-clure. 

[160.] THE SEconD Division. — To this division belong 
a. the only two irregular er-verbs (aller, envoyer) ; b. irregular 
ir-verbs in -rir, -nir preceded by a vowel; c. 2 re-verbs (boire, 
faire); d. all oir-verbs. 

A peculiarity common to all the verbs in -ir [save courir] 
and -oir(e) [save voir] of this division is that they strengthen 
their root-vowel [e = to /e or o/, ou (old o) to ew] in the pres. 
ind. and subj. and imperat. whenever it receives the tone, i.e. 
in the sing. and 3 pl. (e.g. ten-ir: pres. 1 sing. tiens, but 1 pli. 
tenons ; dev-otr: pres. 1 sing, dois, 1. pl. devons ; mourir: pres. 
1 sing. meurs, 1 pl. mourons). 

Verbs in -nir strengthen their root also in fut.-cond. (cf. below). 

For the rest the verbs of this division may be studied in the 
order they were enumerated above, viz. : 

A.—rr-verbs: aller forms its stems from 3 different roots 
(see the verb) ; — envoyer is irregular only in being changed 
(by the loss of oy) to enverr- in the fut.-cond. 

B.—1r-verbs: all lack the stem-extending syllable ~s(s) ; all 
drop ¢ of -ir in fut.-cond. (courir: fut. cour’rat), those in -nir, 
besides, modifying their root (ten-ir: fut. tiend’r-at). Other 


elaine Sy Shin el cael al 


160, 161.] VERBS. 83 


peculiarities are best studied under each verb. Here belong: 
courir ; — mourir ; — ac-quérir (with other compounds in 


-quérir) ; — tenir, venir. 


C.— RrE-verbs: faire ; — boire. 
D.— or1r-verbs: all (save the compounds pré-, pour-voir) lack ! 


~ ot in fut.-cond. (e.g. devoir : fut. devr-ai). They also modify the 


stem as described under each verb. All, save voir, asseoir form 


_ their past part. in -w, and pret. in -ws. Other peculiarities are 


best studied under each verb. Here belong: re-cevo/r (and 
other comp. of -cevoir); devoir; mouvoir; pouvoir, pleuvoir ; — 
savoir ; —falloir; valoir; vouloir ; —voir; asseoir. 


REFERENCE List oF IRREGULAR VERBS. 


161, The irregular verbs are described below in alphabetical 
order. The principles of arrangement are as follows: 

1. Every simple verb — even when occurring only in compo- 
sition (like -cevoir in re-cevoir, etc.) —is given in its alphabetical 
order. Under it are enumerated its compounds. When it is 
not in use itself, one of its compounds is pointed out as model 
and described in its alphabetical place. — Exceptionally a com- 
pound verb whose derivation is not evident, is given in its 
alphabetical order even without reference to this method. 

2. The principal parts are given first, and below them the 
derived tenses. The principles of derivation are those described 
in § 135. The plural of the present ind. is considered regular 
whenever it contains the stem of the present partic. The 
imperative is inflected like the present indic. (unless other- 
wise stated). | 

3. Bold type denotes irregularities: in the principal parts 
with reference to the regular conjugation (in oir- verbs simply 
with reference to the stem); but in the derived tenses with 
reference to the principal parts. 





1 Historically it was the original Latin vowel, not oi, that disappeared 
as atonic (movere hdbeo ; mov’r-ai). 


84 


SECOND PART. 


(161. 


PRINCIPAL AND DERIVED PARTS (cf. 135). 











INFINITIVE : Pr. Part.: | Past Part.:| Pres. InpD.: | PRETERIT: 
Fut. + ai Pr. §. -e ) for | Comp. tens. Imperat. | Impf. S.+ sse 
Cond.+ ais | Ip.I.-azs J -ant (to stem) 
Ac-quérir’| acquérant | acquis |acquiers? | acguis 
(160. B) Pr. 8. A acquiers Ipf. 8. 
acquire acquiere acquiert acquisse 
F. acquieres acquérons 
acquerrai ® acquiere acquérez 
O. acquérions acquierent 
acquerrais * sg ois Imp’ve 
acquiérent aoguiers 
Ept..d, 
acquérats 














[Acquérir is from low-Lat. ac-querire for -querére (which has given 
acquiers, etc.). The rr of the fut.-cond. is owing to the loss of 7.] 
So also con-quérir and recon-quérir, both used only in inf., past part. 
and pret. ; en-quérir, re-quérir. 


Aller 
(160. A) go 
F, 

irai 
C. 
irais 





allant 


Pr.8, 
aille 4 
ailles 
aille 
allions 
alliez 
aijllent 


Ipf. I. 
allais 





allé 
(étre: 142) 





yais 
vas 
va 
allons 
allez 
vont 
Imp’ve 
va (vas 127) 
allons 
allez 





allat 


Ipf. 8. 
allasse 


[ Aller forms its tenses from three different radicals, viz.: 1. a//-, in 
subjunct. azl-, (uncertain derivation) ; 2. va- (Lat. vadere ‘go’); and 
3. ir- (Lat. ire ‘ go’).] 

Of common use is the reflexive idiom s’en aller (cf. 147, 150) ‘go 
away’: Pr. je m’en vais, tu t’en vas, il s’en va; nous nous en allons, etc. 





1 Pronounce a-kérvir. 
2 Pron, a-kiér. 


verb. 


Hyphen in above list used to separate prefix from 


8 Pron. a-kér-ré (C, -ré). 4 Pron. dy. 








161.] 


VERBS. 


85 


*Ap-parotr (Lat. ap-parere) ‘appear’ is defective, occurring only in the 


infinit., and in 3d sing. pres. ind. 7 appert. 


As-saillir 
(159. C)assail 


F. 
assaillirai 


Cc. 
assaillirais 





assaillant 


Pr. 8. 
assaille 


Ipf. I. 
assaillais 





assailli 


[ Assaillir is from Lat. as-salire.] 
So also tres-saillir. 


As-seoir' 
(160. D) seat 

F, 
asseyerai 

or 
assiérat 

Cc. 
=—+s 





asseyant 


Pr. 8. 
asseye (131) 


Ipf. I. 
asseyais 





assis 








assaille 


Imp’ve 
assaille 


assieds ” 


assieds 
assied 
asseyons 
asseyez 
asseyent 
Imp’ve 
sssieds 








assaillis 


Ipf. 8. 
assaillisse 


assis 


Ipf. 8. 
assisse 


Asseoir (Lat. as-sidére ‘be seated near’) is used chiefly as a reflexive 
verb s’asseoir (je m’assieds, etc.) ‘ sit down.’ 
Like asseoir also rasseoir, surseoir (which, however, in the pres. ind. 
is sursois and defective : cf. seoir). 


Avoir: for full conjugation cf. 137. 


Battre: cf. 134, 3. So also compounds a-, com-, dé-, &-, ra-, re-battre. 


Boire 
(160. D) 
drink 

F. 
botrat 
C. 
" boirais 





buvant 
RY. 
boive 
boives 
boive 
buvions 
 buviez 
boivent 
Ipf. I. 
buvais 





bu 





bois 
bois 
boit 
buvons 
buvez 
boivent 
Imp’ve 

bois 





bus 


Ipf. 8. 
busse 


[ Boire is from Lat. bibere, whose b becomes v between vowels. | 





1 Pron. d-soir. 


2 Pron. a-sié. Exceptionally the form asso/s is also found. 








re: 


86 SECOND PART, (161. 


Bouillir | boutllant bouilli bous bouillis 


(159. B) Pr. . - bous Ipf. 8. 
boil (intr.) bouille = bout bouillisse 
F. pt. I. bouillons 
bouillirai housilais bouillez 
0 - bouillent 
bouillirais Imp’ve 
bous 














[Fr. Lat. bullire ‘boil,’ with loss of // in pres. ind. sing.] 
To express ‘ boil’ transitively use faire bouillir. 
Like bouillir also ébouillir, re-bouillir. 
* Braire (low Lat. bragire), ‘bray’ is defective. It has brayant; brat, 
braient ; brayais, brayaient ; il braira, brairont ; il brairait, brairaient. 
* Bruire (Lat. rugire?) ‘roar’ has only bruyant (as adj.); je bruyais or 
bruissant (bruisse, bruissais); bruit ; je bruis, tu bruis, il bruit (no pl.); je 
bruzrai(s). 


Ceindre -ceignant ceint ceins ceignis 
(159. D.5) girt 


Conjugated like peindre (which see). So also en-ceindre. 
[Lat. cingere ‘ girt’: d intercalated ; ng = (g)n.] 


-cevoir (Lat. capere ‘take’) occurs only in compounds: aper-cevoir, con- 
cevoir, dé-cevoir, per-cevoir, re-cevoir. These are all conjugated like 
recevoir (which see). 


* Choir ‘fall’: only in the pres. ind. je chois, tu chois, il choit, infinit. and 
past part. chu with étre. Compounds are déchoir and échoir, which see. 
[Old form cheoir, from Lat. cadére (through cadére) ‘ fall’). 
Circon-cire ‘circumcise ’ is conjugated like suf-fire, except that the past 
part. is circon-cis. 


-{Lat. circum-cidere ‘cut around’). 


-cire (Lat. cidere == cedere ‘cut’) only in circon-cire, see above. 





* Clore close — clos clos — 
F. Pr. 8 clog 
clorat close clot 
pl. wanting _ 
C. 
clorais : 




















pra opie yc ao ce a ek 


161.) 


VERBS. 


87 


[This defective verb from Lat. claudere ‘close’]. Compounds deé- 
clore (only p. p. déclos), é-clore (p. p. éclos and 3d sing. and pl. of some 
tenses ; i/ éclét, etc.), en-clore (= clore), for-clore (only p. p. for-clos). 


-clure (Lat. cludere ‘close’) in con-clure (which see), ex-clure, re-clure 
(only inf. and past p.). 


Con-clure 
(159. E) 
conclude 

F. 
-clurar 

C. 
-clurais 


Con-duire 
(159. D. 1) 
conduct 

ew 
conduirai 

Cc. 
condutrais 


| concluant 


Pr. 8, 
conclue 


Ipf. I. 
concluais 


conduisant 
Pr; s. 
conduise 


Ipf. I. 
conduisais 








conclu 


conduit 


conclus 


Imp’ve 
conclus 


conduits 


Imp’ve 
conduts 








conclus 


Ipf. 8. 
conclusse 


condutsis 


Ipf. 8. 
conduisisse 


[Lat. con-ducere ‘conduct’: ¢ changed to s where not lost. ] 

So all verbs in -wire, viz.: compoupds of -duire (dé-, en-, in-, intro-, 
pro-, recon-, repro-, ré-, sé-, tra-duire) ; — compounds of -stru/re, con-, in-, 
recon-struire) ; — dé-truire ; —cuire (dé-, re-) ;— /uire (re-luire: both 


Pp. p. lui); nuire (pe p. nui). 


Only the defective bruire (which see) deviates. 


Connattre 
(169. D. 2) 
know 


F. 
connaitrat 


©. 
connaitrais 


connaissant 
Pr. 8. 
connaisse 


Ipf. I. 
connaissais 


° 








connu 





connais 


connais 
connait 
connaissons 
connaissez 
connaissent 
Imp’ve 
connais 





connus 


Ipf. 8. 
CONNUSSE 


[ Lat. co-gnoscere ‘know’: Old Fr. conoistre, t intercalated ; later con- 
naitre (the circumflex denoting the loss of s); sc = ss in connaissant 


and derived forms. 


Cf. naitre.] 


So all verbs in -ajtre, except naitre : i.e. the compounds mé-connaitre, 
re-connaitre ; — and farther paraitre with compounds, paitre (defective), 


re-pattre, 





88 


Coudre 
(159. D. 3) 
sew 


F. 
coudrat 


C; 
coudrais 


Courir 
(160. B) run 


RF 
courrai 1 


CG. 
courrais 1 


Couvrir 
(159. B) cover 


FR. 
couvrirat 


©. 
couvrirais 





ré-crire. 











cousant 


Pr.'B 
couse 


Ipf. I. 
cousais 


courant 


tig, Ms 
coure 


Ipf. I. 
courais 


couvrant 


Pr. 8. 
couvre 


Ipf. I. 
couvrais 














COUSU 


couru 


couvert 











SECOND PART. 


Con-quérir ‘conquer’ = ac-quérir (which see). 


couds 


couds 
coud 
cousons 
cousez 
cousent 


Imp’ve 
couds 


[Lat. con-suere, whose s appears outside of the infinit.] 
So also dé-coudre, re-coudre. 


cours 


etc. 
= 3d conj’n 


Imp’ve. 
cours 


Cf. mour’rai.] 


couvre 
ete. 
=I1st conj’n 
Imp’ve 
couvre 


[ Lat. co-operire ‘ cover,’ p changed to v.] 
So all verbs in -vrir and -frir, viz.: compounds of couvrir (dé-, re- 
couvrir) ; ouvrir (with entr’ouvrir, rouvnir) ;— offrir, souffrir. 











(i61. 


Con-traindre ‘constrain’: conjugated = peindre (which see). 


cousis 


Ipf. 8. 
cousisse 


courus 


Ipf. 8, 
courussé 


[Lat. currere (through currire) ‘run.’ Therr of the inf. through loss 
of 7, as usual where -rir follows a vowel. 
So also all compounds ac-, con-, dis-, en-, par-, re-, se-, s’entre-secourir 
(hyphen, as here). Of these ac-courir usually has étre in comp’d tenses. 


couvris 


Ipf. S. 
couvrisse 


-crire: (same as -scrire, Lat. scribere ‘ write’) in é-crire (which see), d 


1 Pron. cour-rai(s), to distinguish from the Ipf. cou-rats. 











161.] VERBS. 89 
Craindre | craignant | craint crains  eraignis 


fear 


Conjugated like peindre (which see). 
[The usual derivation from Lat. tremere seems uncertain. | 


Croire | croyant(36) cru crots crus 
(159. E) % Pr. 8. crois Ipf. 8. 
believe crote ' croit crusse 

F, Ipf. I. croyons 
croirat croyais croyez 
C croient 
croirais Imp’ve. 
crois 














[L. credere ‘believe’: €= oi, which before a vowel is oy.] 
Ac-croire used only in faire accroire ‘make believe.’ 


| Croitre croissant cru crois cris 
(159. D. 2) Pr. 8. crots Ipf. 8. 
grow croisse croit criisse 
KF. Ipf. I croissons 
croitrai croissais croissez 
C. croissent 
croitrais Imp’ve 
crois 














[Lat. crescere ‘grow’: old form croistre, t intercalated ; later croftre |- 
(* denoting the loss of s). In croissant and derived forms sc = ss. 
The circumflex of cri, crois, cris (crisse) to distinguish these forms 
from cru, crois, crus of croire (see above). ] 

So also ac-croitre, dé-crottre, re-croitre, sur-crottre, though the vicarious 
circumflex is often omitted in -cru, -crois, -crus (crusse). 


Cueillir cueillant cueilli cuetlle cueillis 
(159. C) cull Pr, &. Imp’ve * Ipf. 8. 
F, cueille cueille cueillisse 
cueillerai Ipf. I. 
C. cueillais 
cueillerais 














[Lat. col-ligere = con + legere (cf. cueillerai).] 
So also ac-cueillir, re-cueillir. 








90 


Cuire 


(159. D.1)cook 


cuisant 


SECOND PART. 


cuit 


Conjugated like con-duire (which see). 
[ Lat. coquere ‘cook’ (later cocere : ¢ = s in conduisant, etc.] 


Deé-choir 
fall, decline 

F.C. 
décherrai(s) 


déchéant or 

déchoyant 
Press 
déchoie 


déchu 


cuis | 


déchois 
etc. cf. 
voir 


Dé-crire ‘ describe’: (conjugated = écrire, which see). 


(161. 


culsis 


déchus 
Ipf. 8. 
déchusse 


Dé-truire ‘destroy’: conjugated like conduire(which see). [Lat. de-struere. | 


Devoir 
(160. D) 
owe 


F. 
devrai 


C. 
devrais 





[Lat. debere: b changed to v; and e, when accented, to oi. 


devant 


Pr. 8. 
doive 
doives 
doive 
devions 
deviez 
doivent 


fpr, i 
devais 





di (f. due) 





dois 
dois 
doit 
devons 
devez 
doivent 

Imp’ve 

dois 





circumflex to distinguish the form from du = de le.] 

Observe that devoir is conjugated precisely like -cevoir of recevoir, 
except that it has the circumflex in dé.—So also re-devoir, which, 
however, has-re-du. 


Dire 
(159. D. 1) 
say 
F. 
dirai 


0. 
dirais 





disant 
Pr. 8. 
dise 


Ipf. I. 
disais 





dit 





dis 
dis 
dit 
disons 
dites 
disent 


Imp’ye 


dis 





dus 


Ipf. 8. 
dusse 


Du with 


dis 
Ipf. 8. 
disse 


[ Lat. dicere ‘say,’ whose c appears as s in pr. part. and derived parts. | 
So also compounds of dire (contre-, dé-, inter-, mau-, mé-, pré-, re-dire), 
except that maudire has ss in pr. part. (maudissant) and derived parts ; 
and that they all, save redire, have -disez, instead of -dites, in 2d pl. 


pres. ind. 








161.} | VERBS. 91 


Dormir dormant dormi dors dormis 
(159. B) Pr. 8. dors Ipf. 8. 
sleep dorme dort dormisse 

¥. Ipf. I. dormons 
dormirai dovuiaie dormez 
C. dorment 
dormirais Imp’ve 
dors 














(Lat. dormire ‘sleep.’] So also en-dormir, r-en-dormir. 


-dutre (Lat. ducere) in con-duire (which see), dé-, in-, intro-, pro-, ré-, sé-, 
tra-duire. 








E-choir éch ant échu il échoit 1 ee 
fall due Ipf. 8. 
r. il échiit 

il echerra as 


Forms not given, lacking. [Lat. ec-cadére (through -cadére).] 


Ecrire écrivant écrit écris écrivis 
(159. D. 6) Pr. 8. écris Ipf. 8. 
write ecrive écrit écrivisse 
F. Ipf.I é€crivons 
écrirai Ccrivais écrivez 
0. . écrivent 
écrirais Imp’ve 
écris 














[Lat. scribere ‘write’: é simply euphonic (commonly before sc-, sm-, 
sp, st-); 6 lost or changed to v.] 
So also dé-crire, ré-crire ; and compounds in -serire. 


Envoyer | envoyant envoyé envote (131)| envoyai 
(160. A) send Fr, 8. Imp’ve Ipf. 8. 
F. envote envoie envoyasse 
not lal Ipf. I. 
C. envoyais 
enverrais 

















-—— 


1 Sometimes written, as it is pronounced, échet. 








92 SECOND PART. [161. 


[Probably from en vore (Lat. via) ‘on the way.’ For the interchange 
of y and z cf. 131.] 
So also ren-voyer (but con-voyer, four-voyer regular). 


Btre: ef. 187. 





*Faillir faillant failli faux faillis 
fail, err Pr. 8. faux Ipf. 8. 
tee de faut a 
faillirat Ipf. I. faillons 
or faudrai faillais faillez 
C. Saillent 
faillirais Imp’ve 
or faudrais Sec 














Not much used outside of inf., past part., and pret. 
[Lat. fallere (through fallire).] So also dé-faillir. 


Faire Faisant * fait fais fis 
(160. C) Pr. 8. Sais Ipf. 8. 
do, make fasse fait Jisse 
KF. Ipf. I. Jaisons 
Sera faisais ? faites 
0. font 
Serais Imp’ve 
fais 
faisons 
Saites 














[Lat. facere ‘make’: c, lost in the inf., appears as s(s) in the pres. 
part. and derived forms. ] 

So also the compounds contre-, de-, par-, re-, redé-, satis-, and sur-faire ; 
but for-, mal- or mé-faire occur only in inf. and past. part. 


*Falloir | —— fallu il faut | al fallut 
be necessary Pee: ‘la ‘fall Ipf. 8. 
F. il faille ete. wl fallit 
il faudra Ipf. 
C. il fallait 
il faudrait 

















1 Pronounce fe-za (15, ai, note 1). 2 Pron. fe-zai 











161.] VERBS. 93 


(Lat. fallére (through fallére) : | changed to u before a cons’t; oi of 
-oir lacking, as usual, in fut.-cond., and d intercalated. | 


Feindre Seignant feint Seins Seignis 
feign 


Conjugated like peindre (which see). 
[ Lat. fingere ‘invent’: d intercalated; -ng = (g)n.] 
*Férir ‘strike’: only in the phrase sans coup férir ‘without striking a 
blow.’ [Lat. ferire.] 
fire (Lat. ficere = facere ‘make ’) in con-fire, dé-con-fire, suf-fire (which see). 
Fleurir: cf. 138, 2. So also re-fleurir. 
freindre (Lat. fringere = frangere ‘ break’) in en-freindre ‘infringe’: 
conjugated like peindre (which see). 
Srir (Lat. ferre) in of-frir, souf-frir, both = offrir, which see. 
* Frire ‘fry’ and re-frire: only past part. frit; pres. ind. fris, fris, frit ; 
Ipv. fris ; fut. cond. frirai(s) throughout. — [Lat. frigere ‘roast.’ | 


Fuir? fuyant (36) Sui Suis Suis 
Pr. 8. Ui 
(159. A) flee jeis Sf wi Ipf. S. 
F. ‘fuies Suit Suisse 
Sutrai Suie Juyons 
‘ ee fuyez 
ats uyiez . 
fuirais ‘Kies Suient 
Ipf. I. ee 
Suyais Suis 














[Lat. fugere (through fugire) ‘flee.’ For the interchange of y and i 
cf. 36.] —So also s’en-fuir, re-fuir. 
Geindre ‘sigh’ is inflected like peindre (which see). 
[Lat. gemere, with intercalated d.] 
*Gésir ‘lie’: only gisant; ci-git (for ici git) ‘here lies,’ ci-gisent ‘ here lie’: 
on tomb-stones ; gisons, gisez, gisent ; ci-gisait, ci-gisent. s sharp, save in inf. 
[Lat. jacere ‘lie.’] 
Hair: cf. 133, 3. [From a Germanic word, akin to hate.] 
*Issir ‘be born’: only past -part. issu. [Lat. ex-ire.] 
Joindre joignant joint joins joignis 
join ) 
Conjugated like peindre (which see). So ad-, con-, dé-, en-, dis-,| 
dis-joindre. | 








1 yi is a diphthong. 


94 
[Lat. jungere - 
So also compounds: 
Lire lisant 
(159. D. 1) aa! 
read i 
| ise 
F. 
livds Ipf. i. 
lisais 
C. 
lirais 





SECOND PART. 


d interealated; ng = (q)n.] 


ad-, con-, dé-, en-, dis-, re-joindre. 


lu 





lis 
lis 
lit « 
lisons 
lisez 
lisent 
Imp’ve 








lis 


[161. 


lus 


Ipf. 8. 
lusse 


[ Lat. legere ‘ pick, read’: s of /isant, etc., in analogy with disant, etc. ] 
So also re-lire, é-lire, ré-é-lire, pré-lire. 


luists 


Luire shine | luisant | lui | luis | 
Conjugated like con-duire (which see), noticing that the past part. 
is lui.— So also re-luire. 


[Lat. lucere ‘shine’: c=s where it is not lost.] 


Moudre 
(159. D. 4) 
grind 
F, 
moudrai 


O, 
moudrais 











moulant 


Pr. 8. 
moule 


Ipf. I. 
moulais 





moulu 


(avoir) 








mouds 


mouds 
moud 
moulons 
moulez 
moulent 


Imp’ve 
mouds 











Mentirlie | mentant | mentt = | mens mentis 
Conjugated like sentir (which see). 
[Lat. mentiri ‘lie.’] So also dé-mentir. 
Mettre mettant mis mets (cf. 184) | mis 
159. E 
( ‘ ) Pr. 8. mets Ipf. 8. 
mette met misse 
F mettons 
one Ipf. I. tee 
mettrar oaatnnie mettez 
GC mettent 
mettrais Imp've 
mets 


[Lat. m/ttere ‘let go, send.’] — So also compounds : ad-, com-, compro-, 
dé-, é-, s’entre-, 0-, per-, pro-, re-, sou-, and trans-mettre. 


moulus 


Ipf. 8. 
moulusse 








161.] VERBS. 95 


[Lat. mélere ‘ grind’: d inserted after / before cons’t (moldre) ; and 
J = u, or retained before vowel. | 
So also é-moudre, re-moudre, ré-moudre. 


Mourir mourant mort meurs MouUurus 
(160. B) Pr. 8. (étre: 142) meurs Ipf. 8. 
die OUT : meurt mourusse 

F. MOUTES mourons 
mourrai 1 aa ah mourez 
- mourions mitinend 
mourrais 1 meee 
meurent Imp’ve 
Ipf. I. meurs 
mourais 














[Lat. mériri (for mori): o accented = eu, unaccented = ou (ef. pou- 
voir); 1 dropped in fut.-cond., as usual, when -rir is preceded by a 
vowel (cf. cour’rai, acquer’rai).] 


Mouvoir | mouvant mé meus mus 
(160. D) Pr. 8. Seobterromi hs meus Ipf. 8. 
move mere meut musse 

F, mouves mouvons 
mouvrat seat ha mouvez 
C. sek tsa meuvent 
mouvrais “iopeseg Imp’ 
meuvent Abe 
Ipf. I. oyoe 
mouvais 














[Lat. mdvére ‘ move’: o accented = eu, unaccented = ow (cf. pouvoir, 
mourir) ; oi of -oir, lacking as usual, in fut.-cond.] 

So also &mouvoir.— Dé-mouvoir, pro-mouvoir are used only in inf. and 
(the latter) past part. 


Naitre naissant |né nals naguis 
(159. D. 2) Pr. 8. (étre : 142) nais Ipf. 8. 
be born je naisse nait naquisse 
F. Ipf. I. naissons 
naitrar je naissais naissez 
C naissent 
naitrais Imp’ve 
nais 

















1 Pronounce mour-rai(s), to distinguish from Ipf. mou-rais, 





96 SECOND PART. [161. 


[Lat. nascere (for nasci ‘be born’: 113): old form naistre, t inter- 
calated; later naitre (the circumflex denoting the loss of s); sc = ss in 
naissant and derivatives. Cf. crottre.] 

So also re-naitre. 


-naitre (Lat. gnoscere) in connaitre, which see. 


Nuire | nuisant | nus | nuis | nuisis 
hurt 
Conjugated like con-duire (which see), except that the past part. is 
nut. 
[Lat. nd-cére (through nocére) ‘hurt’: c= s where not lost. ] 


Offrir | offrant 
offer 
Conjugated like couvrir (which see). 
[Lat. of-ferre, through of-f(e)rére, ‘ offer.’] 


Oindre | oignant 
anoint 





offert | offre | offris 





oint | oins | oignis 


Conjugated like peindre (which see). 
[Lat. ungere: d intercalated; ng = gn or simply n.] 
*Ouir ‘hear’: only past part. oui; pr. ind. outs, etc.; ipf. subj. ouisse, etc. 
[Lat. audire. | 
Ouvrir ouvrant ouvert ouvre ouvris 
open 
Conjugated like couvrir (which see). So also r-ouvrir. 
[ Lat. aperfre ‘open’: p changed to v. | 
*Paitre ‘graze’ =connaitre; but not used in the pret., and rarely in the 
past pxrt. Re-paitre = connaitre. 
[Lat. pascere (for pasci ‘feed’: 113 A).] 


Paraitre paraissant paru parais parus 
appear 


Conjugated like connaitre (which see). 


[Vulg. Lat. parescere (for parere ‘appear’): old form paraistre, ¢ in- 
tercalated, later paraitre (~ for the loss of s); sc =ss in paraissant 
and derived forms. | 

So also the compounds ap-, com-, dis-, re-paraitre. 





: 


_-paroir (Lat. parere ‘appear’) in ap-paroir, which see. 


| Partir partant parti pars partis 





161.] 


Conjugated like sentir (which see). 


VERBS. 


[Lat. partiri ‘divide, separate.’ ] — So also re-partir, dé-partir. 


Peindre | peignant peint peins peignis 

peer. 8) | epg peins Ipt. 8. 

paint peigne peint peignisse 
F, Ipf. I. peignons 

peindrat peignais peignez 
O. peignent 

peindrais Imp’ve 

peins 














[Lat. pingere ‘paint’: i= ei; d intercalated in inf.; ng =n or (before 
a vowel) gn. ] 

So all verbs in -ndre [i.e. in -aindre : contraindre, craindre, plaindre ; 
—in -eindre: ceindre with comp., feindre, -freindre (in en-), geindre, 
peindre (compounds of: dé-, re-), -preindre (in é-, em-), -streindre (in 
a-, re-), teindre (and compounds of teindre or -teindre, which see: at-, 
dé-, é-, rat-, re-, ré-), -treindre (in é-);—-ofndre: joindre (and com- 
pounds: cf. the verb), oindre, poindre (defective).] All, save craindre 
(?), are derived from a Latin form in -ngere, treated in analogy with 
pingere, as explained above. 





eee ee ee ee 


Plaindre plaignant plaint plains plaignis 
pity 
Conjugated like peindre (which see). 
[Lat. plangere : d intercalated ; ng = (g)n.] 
Plaire plaisant plu plais plus 
(159. D. 1) Pr. 8. plais Ipf. S. 
please plaise plait plusse 
F. Ipf. I. plaisons 
 plairai plaisais plaisez 
C. plaisent 
plairais Imp’ve 
plais 














“[Lat. pldcére (through vulg. Lat. placére) ‘please’: c= s where not 
lost. Its loss in plait (= placet) denoted by a circumflex. ] 
So also com-plaire, déplaire, and taire, which however has no cir- 
cumflex in tait, but may have one in p. p., tu (or tu), to distinguish this 
form from tu ‘thou,’ 








98 


Pleuvoir 
(160. D) rain 


| eee 
il pleuvra 


C. 
il pleuvrait 





SECOND PART. 


pleuvant 


Pr. 8. 
ul pleuve 


Ipf. I. 
i] pleuvait 





plu 





il pleut 





(161. 


al plut 


Ipf. 8. 
il plit 


[Lat. pluére (through vulg. Lat. pluére): v intercalated before a 
vowel (cf. Lat. plu-vi-um) ; oi of -oir lacking, as usual, in fut.-cond. ] 

In figurative use the 3d plurals are also found (e.g. les compliments 
pleuvent sur elle). 


*Poindre ‘dawn’: 


only il point ; il poindra; poignez. 


[Lat. pungere. a intercalated, ng = (g)n.] 


Pouvoir 
(160. D) 
be able 

F. 
pourrai 

C. 
pourrais 





pouvant 


Pr.8. 
puisse 


Ipf. I. 
pouvais . 





pu 





peux (or puis') pus 


peux 
peut 
pouvons 
pouvez 
peuvent 





Ipf. 8. 
pusse 


[Vulg. Lat. potere (for posse ‘be able’): ¢ lost and v intercalated 
before vowel; o accented = eu, unaccented = ou (cf. mourir, mouvoir) ; 


in fut.-cond. o7 of -oir lacking, as: usual, and rr for old dr.] 


-preindre (Lat. premere) in épreindre, em-preindre.; both like peindre 


(which see). 

Prendre 
(159. E) 
take 


F. 
prendrat 


C. 
prendrais 





prenant | 


Pr. 8. 
prenne (35) 
prennes 
prenne 
prenions 
preniez 
prennent 


Tpf. I. 
prenais 





pris 





prends 


prends 
prend 
prenons 
prenez 
prennent 
Imp’ve 


prends 





pris 
Ipf. 8. 
prisse 


[Lat. prendere (= prehendere) ‘take’: n doubled before e: 35. — So ap, 
com-, dé, désap-, entre-, mé-, rap-, re-, sur-, s’é-prendre (only in past part.).] 





1 Chiefly in questions (puis-je? etc.) and with ne (je ne puis... .). 





: . 


161.] 


re-quérir. 
Re-cevoir 
(160. D) 
receive 
FE. 
receyrat 


C. 
receyrais 


Résoudre 
(169. D. 4) 


resolve 


F, 
résoudrai 


©. 
résoudrais 


Rire 

(159. E) laugh 
F. 

rirat 


cC: 
rirais 














recevant 
Pr. 8. 
recolve 
recoives 
recoive 
recevions 
receviez 
rego/vent 
Ipf. I. 
recevais 


résolvant 


Pr.:8; 
résolve 


Ipf. I. 
résolvais 


riant 
Pr. 8. 
rie 
Ipf. I. 
riais 














VERBS. 


recu 


résolu ' 


[Lat. re-solvere: d intercalated in inf.; 
exc. uw), or -ol- (before u), or -ou- (before consonants). ] 


So also ab-soudre (but past part. m. absous, f. absoute), dis-soudre (but 
past part. m. dissout, f. dissoute). 


ri 











Quérir ‘seek, find out’: only in inf. (with aller, envoyer, venir); and in 
the compounds ac-guérir (which see), con-quérir (re-conquerir), en-quérir, 


recois 
recois 
recoit 
recevons 
receévez 
recoivent 


Imp’ve 
recoils 


[ Lat. re-cipére (through vulg. Lat. re-cipére - p changed to »v, and é, 
when accented, to oz (cf. devoir).] 


So all compounds (aper-, con-, dé-, per-cevoir). 
Re-pentir (se) ‘repent’: conjugated like sentir (which see). 
Lat. paenitere. | 


résous 
résous 
résout 
résolvons 
résolvez 
résolvent 
Imp’ve 
résous 


| ris 


Imp’ve 
ris 


[Lat. ridere ‘laugh.’] So also sou-rire ‘ smile.’ 








-olv- = -olv- (before vowel, 





uo 


recus 


Ipf. 8. 
recusse 


=- 


[-pentir from 


résolus 


Ipf. 8. 
résolusse 


ris 


Ipf. 8. 
risse 





1 Also résous (no f.) in sense of ‘ dissolved, changed.’ 





100 


SECOND PART. 


R-ouvrir ‘re-open’ = ouvrir, which see. 
* Saillir ‘project’ conjugates like as-saillir (which see), except that the 
fut.-cond. is saillerai(s). But it occurs only in the 3d persons sing. and 
plur. — (In the sense of ‘spout out’ it is regular). 
[Lat. salire ‘jump.’] For as-saillir, tres-saillir, see the former. 


Savoir 
(160. D) 
know 


F. 
saurai 


Cc. 
saurais 





sachant 


Pr. 8. 
sache 


Tpf. I. 
savais 


$u 





sais 
sais 
sait 
sayons 
sayez 
savent 
Imp’ve 
sache 
sachons 
sachez 








161. 


sus 


Ipf. S. 
SUSSE 


[Lat. saipére (through vulg. Lat. sdpére) ‘be wise’: p =v; ch in 
sachant, etc., owing to the reduction of pi in sapient- to a fricative j (cf. 
diurnus = jour) ; — oi of -oir lacking, as usual, in fut.-cond., and v= u.] 

-serire (Lat. scribere) in the compounds circon-, in-, pre-, pro-, sou-, tran- 
scrire, all conjugated like écrire, which see. 


Sentir 
(159. B) 
feel 


F. 
sentirai 


C. 
sentirais 





sentant 


rr f. 
sente 


Ipf. I. 
sentais 


[Lat. sentire ‘feel.’] 

So also compounds (as-, con-, pres-, res-sentir); and farther mentir 
(dé-mentir), partir (re-, dé-partir), se repentir, servir, sortir (ressortir). 
*Seoir ‘fit’: only séant; past part. sis; pr. ind. i sied; fut.-cond. i 


siéra(it). 


senti 





[Lat. sedere ‘ be seated.’] 
Compounds: as-seoir (see the verb), sur-seoir (only past part. sur-sis, 


pres. ind. surseos, pret. sursis), ras-seoir (see asseoir). 


Servir 
serve 


servant 


servi 


sens 


sens 
sent 
sentons 
sentez 
sentent 
Imp’ve 
sens 





| sers 





sentis 


Ipf. 8. 
sentisse 


servis 








161.) VERBS. 101 


Conjugated like sentir (which see). 
[Lat. servire ‘serve.’] So also des-servir. But as-servir is regular. 
Sortir | 
go out 
Conjugated like sentir (which see). 
[ Lat. sortiri ‘go out.’] So also res-sorti7. 


sortant sorti sors sortis 


Soudre (Lat. solvere) ‘solve’: only the inf.— Also in the compounds 
ab-soudre, dis-soudre, and ré-soudre (which last see). 
Souf-frir souffert souffre 
suffer 
Conjugated like couvrir (which see). 
[ Lat. suf-fere, through su/-f(e)rére, ‘ bear.’ ] 
Souloir (Lat. solere) ‘be accustomed’: only in i soulait. 


souffrant 


souffris 


Sourdre (Lat. surgere) ‘rise up, gush’: only pres. ind. sourd, gourdent. 


-streindre (Lat. stringere ‘press’) in a-streindre, re-streindre, both like 
peindre, which see. 


-struire (Lat. struere ‘build’) in con-struire (recon-struire), in-struire, all 
like conduire, which see. 





Suf-fire | suffisant suffi suffis suffis 
(151. D. 1) Pr. 8.  suffis Ipf. 8. 
suffice suffise su ffit suffisse 
F. Ipf. 1. suffisons 
suffirai suffisais suffisez 
C suffisent 
suffirais Imp’ve 
' suffis 











[Lat. suf-f7cere ‘ suffice’: c = s where not lost. ] 
' So also con-fire, décon-fire, except past part. confit, déconfit. — Also 
circoncire (exc. past part. -cis). 

















Suivre suivant suivi suis suivis 
| (159. E) Pr. 8. suis Ipf. 8. 
follow suive suit suivisse 
F. Ipf. 1 suivons 
suivrat suivais suivez 
C. Suivent . >. 
suivrais Tmp’ve > 
suis 





102 SECOND PART. f161. 


[Vulg. Lat. sequere (for sequi ‘follow’: 113, A): qu=v.] 
So also s’entre-suivre, poursuivre. S’ensuivre only in 3d sing. and pl. 
tu (or t@) tais | tus 


Taire taisant 


keep silent 

Conjugated like plaire (which see), except that tait (3d sing. pres. 
ind.) has no circumflex. Usually refl., se tazre * be silent.’ 

[Lat. tacére (through vulg. L. tdcére) ‘ be silent’ : c= s where not lost. ] 

















Tenir tenant tenu tiens tins 
(160. B) Pr. 8. tiens tins 
hold tienne tient tint 

F. tiennes tenons tinmes 
tiendrat tienne tenez tintes 
C. tenions tiennent tinrent 
tiendrais, tentez Imp’ve Ipf. 8. 
trennent tiens tinsse 
Ipf. I. 
tenais 


[ Lat. ténére (through ténire) : & accented changed to ie ori (pret.) ; in 
fut.-cond. e, though unaccented, = ie (to distinguish from fut.-cond. of 
tendre: so also viendrai of venir to distinguish from fut. of vendre); i of 
-ir lost, and d intercalated.]— So also compounds (abs-, appar-, con-, 
dé-, entre-, main-, ob-, re-, sou-tenir).— Also venir. 


Teindre 
tint 


teignant 


teint 


teins 


teignis 


Conjugated like peindre (which see). Comp’ds déteindre, reteindre. 

[Lat. tingere: cf. pingere under peindre. | 
-teindre= peindre, in at-, rat-teindre [fr. Lat. (at)tingere]; and in é-, ré- 
teindre [fr. Lat. (ex)tinguere]. Cf. also teindre above. 
-treindre in étreindre (Lat. stringere) ‘tighten, bind’: conjugated like 


teindre. 
*Traire trayant trait trais — 
milk Pr. 8. (pl. trayons 
F. traie etc.) 
trairat Ipf. I. Imp’ve 
C. trayais trats 
trairais 





[ Lat. trahere ‘draw.’ ] 
So also compounds (abs-, dis-, ex-, ren-, re-, sous-, at-traire). 


-truire (Lat. struere) in dé-truire, which see. 














hoes ee ee 


161.} 


Vaincre 
conquer 


Regular, observing that c becomes gu before all vowels, except u 
(cf. 1384, 1).— [Lat. vincere ‘ conquer.’ ] — So also convaincre. 


Valoir 
(160. D) 
be worth 


F. 
vaudrai 


©. 
vaudrais 


[Lat. valere ‘be worth’: / changed to u before a consonant; o7 of 
-oir lacking, as usual, in fut.-cond., and d intercalated. ] 


Venir 
‘come’ 


Conjugated like tenir (which see). 





| vainguant 


valant 


Pr. 8. 
vaille 
vailles 
vaille 
valions 
valiez 
vaillent 

Ipf. I. 
valais 


venant 





VERBS. 


vaincu 


valu 


venu (étre) 





vaincs 


VQUX 


vaux 
vaut 
valons 
valez 
valent 


viens 


[ Lat. venire ‘come’: treated like tenire, ef. tenir.] 


So also compounds [circon-, contre-, con-, de-, discon-, inter-, par-, pré-, 


pro-, re-, rede-, sou- (se ressou-), sub-, sur-venir ]. 


Vétir 
(159. B) 
clothe 
F. 
vétirai 
Cc. 
vétirais 


[ Lat. vestire ‘clothe’: the loss of s denoted by a cireumflex.] 
So also compounds (dé-, re-, sur-vétir). 


Vivre 
(159. E) 
live 

F. 
vivrai 

a 
vivrais 











vétant 


Pr. S. 
véte 


Ipf. I. 
vétais 


vivant 
Pr. 8. 
vive 


Ipf. I. 
vivais 








vétu 


vecu 








yéts 
véts 
etc. 
= 8 conj’n 
Imp’ve 
véts 


vis 

vis 

vit 
vivons 
vivez 
vivent 

Imp’ve 

vis 











103 


vainguis 


valus 


Ipf. 8. 
valusse 


vins 


vétis 


Ipf. 8. 
vétisse 


vécus 


Ipf. 8. 
vecusse 








104 


[Lat. vivere ‘live’: 
Lat. k-sound in vixi = vic-si, vic-tum.] 
So also re-vivre, sur-vivre. 


Voir 
(169. D) 
see 

F. 
verrat 


C. 
verrais 


[Lat. videre ‘see’ 
old dr (vedrai). 





SECOND PART. 


voyant (36) 
Pres, 
voie 
voles 
vote 
voytons 
voyiez 
voient 
Ipf. I. 
voyais 


graphic: cf. 36.] 
So also entre-voir, pré-voir (whose fut.-cond., however, is prévo/rai, -s), 
pour-voir (but fut.-cond. pourvo/rai, -s, and pret. pourvus), re-voir. — dé- 


pourvoir, only in the inf. and past part. 


Vouloir 
(160. D) 
wish 

F. 
voudrai 


Cc. 
voudrais 





voulant 


Pr. 8. 
veuille 
veuilles 
veuille 
voulions 
vouliez 
veuillent 


Ipf. 1. 
voulais 








VU 


voulu 








vols 


vols 
voit 
voyons 
voyez 
voient 
Imp’ve 
vos 


VEUX 


veux 
veut 
voulons 
voulez 
veulent 
Imp’ve 
veuille 
veuillons 
veuillez 
(cf. note) 








ried. 


t changed to & before ¢ (which represents the 


: fut. verr-ai, with lacking oi as usual, and rr for 
The distinction between voy-, voi- is simply ortho- 


voulus 


Ipf. 8. 
voulusse 


Nors. — Usually, the imperat. form is veu///ez ‘ please.’ 

{Lat. volo (through vdlere = velle) ‘wish’: 0 accented = eu, unac- 
cented = ou; 1 lost before consonant; oi of -oir lacking, as usual, in 
fut.-cond., where d is intercalated. ] 











162-164.] _ INDECLINABLE WORDS. 105 


IX. 
INDECLINABLE WORDS. 


[!162. HISTORY. -—-Of Indeclinables a rather limited number are di- 
rectly derived from the Latin (e.g. bien from bene, donc from tune, trés 
from trans; a from ad, en from in; et from et, ou from aut. ete.). The 
majority are formed by later composition (cf. assez from ad satis, jamais 
from jam magis, encore from hanc oram, enfin from Fr. en and jin; avant 
from ab ante, avec from apud hoc, @ travers, sans que, etc.) ; or by derivation 
from other parts of speech (cf. chez ‘at’ from in casa ‘in the house,’ Old ” 
Fr. en chez; hors, prep., ‘out of’ —like fors ‘except’—from foris ‘ out 


of doors,’ durant, pres. part., ‘during’: etc.). 


An important formation is that of adverbs in -ment. Adverbial abla- 
tive constructions like bona mente ‘in a good manner’ were used already 
in Latin, and later this mente (fr. mens), abbreviated to -ment, was fused 
with its preceding feminine adjective into one word; and such adverbial 
compounds are now formed about as freely as, in English, adverbs in -ly 


(= like).] 


163. Indeclinables, as involving no change of form, are all 
found directly in dictionaries, and might therefore properly 
be dismissed here with few words. For the convenience of 
students, however, who may desire to save time in reading or 
writing French by learning at once the most common of the in- 
declinables, these are enumerated below in alphabetical order, 


ADVERBS. 


164. Single adverbs (of place, time, manner, etc.). —ailleurs ‘else- 
where,’ ainsi ‘thus, so,’ alors ‘ then,’ assez ‘ enough, quite, pretty,’ aucune- 
ment ‘by no means,’ aujourd’hui ‘ to-day,’ auparavant ‘before,’ aussi ‘also, 
as,’ aussitét ‘immediately,’ autant ‘as much,’ autrefvis ‘formerly,’ autrement 
‘ otherwise’; beaucoup ‘much,’ bien ‘well, much,’ bientét ‘soon’; cependant 


106 SECOND PART. [164-167, 


‘meanwhile,’ combien ‘how much,’ comme ‘as, like,’ comment ‘how’; davan- 
tage ‘more,’ dedans ‘within,’ dehors ‘outside,’ déja ‘already,’ demain ‘to- 
morrow,’ derriére ‘behind,’ désormais ‘henceforth,’ dessous ‘under,’ dessus 
‘over,’ devant ‘before,’ dorénavant ‘henceforth’; encore ‘still,’ enfin ‘in 
short, finally,’ ensemble ‘together,’ ensuite ‘then,’ environ ‘about,’ exprés 
‘purposely’; fort ‘very’; hier ‘yesterday’; ici ‘here’; jadis ‘formerly,’ 
jamais ‘ever, never,’ jusque ‘till, until’; /a ‘there,’ longtemps ‘long (time), 
lors ‘then’; maintenant ‘now, mal ‘badly,’ méme ‘even,’ mieux ‘better,’ 
moins ‘less’; ne ‘not,’ néanmoins ‘ nevertheless,’ non ‘no,’ nullement ‘by no 
means’; ou ‘where,’ oui ‘yes’; parfois ‘at times,’ partout ‘everywhere,’ pas 
‘not,’ peu ‘little,’ pis ‘worse,’ plus ‘more,’ plutét ‘rather,’ pourtant ‘how- 
ever,’ prés ‘near,’ presque ‘almost,’ puis ‘then’; quand ‘when,’ que (for 
combien) ‘how,’ quelquefois ‘sometimes’; si ‘yes’ (used especially in reply 
to a negative question), soudain(ement) ‘suddenly,’ souvent ‘often,’ sur 
tout ‘especially’; tant ‘so much,’ tantét ‘by and by, recently’ (tantét... . 
tantét ‘now... now’), tard ‘late,’ tét ‘soon,’ toujours ‘ always,’ tout ‘wholly, 
quite,’ toutefois ‘ however,’ trés ‘ very,’ trop ‘too, too much’; vite ‘ quickly,’ 
volontiers ‘ willingly’; y ‘there.’ 


[165.] Besides, most French adjectives may be changed to adverbs by 
adding -ment to their feminine form, or to the masculine if ending in a 
vowel, — Ex. hautement ‘highly; haughtily; aloud’ (from haut ‘ high’), 
doucement ‘softly’ (Fr. doux ‘soft’), follement ‘foolishly’ (Fr. fol, fem. 
folle ‘foolish’: 75; so also bellement, etc.) ; poliment ‘politely’ (Fr. poli 
‘ polite’), etc. 

Note 1.—A few adjectives accent their final e before -ment.— Ex. 
profondément, précisément, expressément, etc. 

Nore 2.— Adjectives in -nt change nt to m before -ment. — Ex. constant : 
constam-ment, patient : patiem-ment (-emm pronounced as d-m ; 19, note 2). 


166. As in English, some adjectives are, in a certain sense, used as 
adverbs or adverbial predicates without any change of form. Thus: bas 
‘low,’ adv. ‘in a low voice,’ cher ‘dear,’ adv. ‘ dear,’ droit ‘straight,’ adv. 
‘straightways,’ exprés ‘express,’ adv. ‘ purposely,’ fort ‘ strong,’ adv. ‘ very,’ 
faux ‘false,’ adv. ‘out of tune,’ haut ‘high,’ adv. ‘loudly,’ juste ‘ just,’ adv. 
‘correctly,’ soudain ‘sudden,’ adv. ‘suddenly,’ vite ‘ quick,’ adv. ‘ quick(ly), 
fast.’ 


167. Adverb-phrases (of place, time, manner, etc.).—a@ bon marché 
‘cheap(ly),’ @ jamais ‘ forever,’ & la fois ‘at once,’ @ l’envi ‘in emulation,’ 
& part ‘aside,’ a peine ‘hardly,’ a peu prés ‘nearly, almost,’ aprés-demain 


rer 


167-169.] INDECLINABLE WORDS. 107 
‘the day after to-morrow,’ @ présent ‘at present, now,’ au moins ‘at least,’ 
au reste ‘besides,’ avant-hier ‘the day before yesterday,’ avant peu ‘before 
long,’ ga et la ‘here and there,’ ci-aprés ‘ hereafter,’ ci-inclus ‘enclosed,’ ci- 
joint ‘annexed,’ d’abord ‘at first,’ d’accord ‘agreed,’ d’ailleurs ‘ besides,’ de 
bonne heure ‘in good time, early,’ de /a ‘hence,’ de méme ‘likewise,’ de plus 
‘moreover,’ de suite ‘in succession,’ dés lors ‘since then,’ d’ici ‘from here,’ 
d’ordinaire ‘usually,’ d’ou ‘ whence,’ du moins ‘at least,’ du reste ‘ however,’ 
du tout ‘at all, en attendant ‘in the, meantime, until, en avant ‘forward,’ 
en bas ‘below, down-stairs,’ en effet ‘in fact,’ en haut ‘ aloft, up-stairs,’ /a-bas 
‘yonder,’ la-dessus ‘upon that, thereupon,’ ne. . . pas (etc., cf. 169), non 
plus ‘not either,’ nulle part ‘nowhere,’ par ceur ‘by heart,’ peut-étre ‘ per- 
haps,’ plus tét ‘sooner,’ quant & ‘as to,’ quelque part ‘somewhere,’ sans doute 
‘undoubtedly,’ si fait ‘yes, indeed,’ sur-le-champ ‘on the spot, at once,’ 
tant soit peu ‘ever so little,’ tét ou tard ‘sooner or later,’ tour @ tour ‘in 
turn,’ tout @ coup ‘suddenly,’ tout a ’heure ‘presently,’ tout de suite ‘imme- 
diately,’ tout d’un coup ‘in one stroke.’ 


168. COMPARISON OF ADverBs. — Adverbs that can have 
a comparative and superlative degree are compared, like adjec- 
tives, by the aid of plus and moins (e.g. facilement ‘easily,’ 
plus facilement, le plus facilement). Only the following four 
deviate from this rule, viz. : — 


Posir. CoMPARAT. SUPERLAT. 
bien ‘well’ mieux le mieux 
aes | ‘badly ’ pis le pis 

poorly’ plus mal le plus mal 
peu ‘little’ moins le moins 
beaucoup ‘much’ plus le plus 


169. NEGATION. — With a verb, the simple negation ‘not’ 
is usually (cf. 321-338) expressed by the aid of two words, 
viz. ne, placed before the personal form of the verb or an 
object-pronoun preceding it, and pas or (more emphatically) 
point after it.—So also ne . . . jama/s mean ‘never, ne... 
plus ‘no longer’ (but ne .. . pas plus ‘not more’), no... gue 


‘only,’ ne. . . guére ‘hardly, but little.’ — Ex, 


108 SECOND PART. [169-172. 


Je n'ai pas. I have not. 

Je n'ai pas (or point) parlé. I have not spoken. 

Je ne lui ai pas parle. I have not spoken to him. 

Je ne le lui donnerai pas (or point). I shall not give it to him. 

Je ne joue jamais. I never play. 

Je ne jouerat plus. I shall not play any more 
| (=I shall play no longer). 

Je ne jouerai pas plus que lui. I shall not play any more 

than he. 
Je nai que trois dollars. I have only three dollars. 
Il n était guére arrive. He had hardly arrived. 


For farther particulars, see Syntax. 


[170.] Without a verb, ‘rot’ is expressed by non or non pas (non point), 
or, more seldom, by pas, as described in the Syntax. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


171. Single prepositions. — apres ‘after,’ avant ‘before’ (in ‘time or 
place’), avec ‘with,’ chez ‘at (the house of),’ contre ‘against,’ dans ‘in,’ 
depuis ‘ since,’ derriére ‘ behind, dés ‘from, since,’ devant ‘ before (a place), 
durant ‘ during,’ en ‘in,’ entre ‘between,’ envers ‘towards,’ environ ‘about,’ 
hormis ‘ except,’ jusque ‘till, until,’ malgré ‘in spite of,’ moyennant ‘ by means 
of,’ nonobstant ‘notwithstanding,’ outre ‘besides, beyond,’ par ‘by,’ parmi 
‘among,’ pendant ‘during,’ pour ‘for,’ sans ‘without,’ sauf ‘save,’ selon 
‘according to,’ sous ‘under,’ suivant ‘according to,’ sur ‘on, upon,’ vers 
‘towards.’ 


172. Preposition-phrases. — a cause de ‘on account of,’ & cété de ‘ by, 
next to,’ a force de ‘by dint of,’ a égard de ‘with regard to,’ @ l'exception 
de ‘excepted,’ & insu de ‘unknown to,’ &@ moins de ‘unless,’ & travers de 
‘through, across (without resistance),’ au-dedans de ‘within,’ au dehors de 
‘without,’ au dela de ‘beyond,’ au-dessous de ‘under,’ au dessus de ‘upon,’ 
au-devant ‘before,’ autour de ‘around,’ au lieu de ‘instead of,’ au milieu de 
‘in the middle of,’ au moyen de ‘by means of,’ auprés de ‘near, by,’ au 
travers de ‘through, across (an obstacle),’ en deca de ‘on this side,’ en 
dépit de ‘in spite of,’ ensuite de ‘after,’ faute de ‘for want of,’ hors de ‘out 
of,’ le long de ‘along,’ prés de ‘near,’ proche de ‘near,’ quant & ‘as for,’ 


vis-a-vis de ‘ opposite to,’ 





173-175.] INDECLINABLE WORDS. 109 


CoNJUNCTIONS. 


173. Single conjunctions. — car ‘for,’ cependant ‘ however,’ donc ‘ then,’ 
et ‘and,’ lorsque ‘ when,’ mais ‘ but,’ ni ‘neither, nor,’ ou ‘ or,’ pourquoi ‘why,’ 
pourtant ‘however,’ puisque ‘since,’ quand ‘when,’ que ‘that, quoique ‘al- 
though,’ si ‘if.’ . 


174. Conjunction-phrases. — ajin que ‘in order that,’ ainsi que ‘as 
well as,’ a moins que ‘ unless,’ avant que ‘ before,’ bien que ‘although,’ depuis 
que ‘since,’ dés que ‘since, as soon as,’ jusqu’a ce que ‘until,’ parce que 
‘ because,’ pendant que ‘while,’ pour que ‘in order that,’ pourvu que ‘ pro- 
vided,’ suns que ‘ without, unless,’ tant que ‘as long as,’ tandis que ‘ while.’ 


INTERJECTIONS. 


175. Ah ‘ah!’ ate ‘oh!’ bah ‘pshaw!’ chut ‘hist!’ fi ‘fie!’ ha ‘hal’ hélas 
(s pronounced sharp) ‘alas!’ hola ‘hallo!’ paix ‘silence!’ — and so on. 

Notr. — Many words and brief phrases are used interjectionally : bon 
‘good!’ peste ‘plague take it!’ a la bonne heure ‘very well!’ par exemple 
‘indeed!’ etc. Frequently the imperatives of aller and venir are thus 
used: allons (donc) ‘come! why! nonsense!’ allez ‘come! now!” tiens or 


tenez ‘hold! there! look!’ 


SYNTAX. 





X. 
INTRODUCTORY. 


176. Syntax treats of the combination of words into sen- 
tences: their interdependence and agreement, as well as their 
relative position. 


177. The leading syntactical principles are in French the 
following : 

a. The subject determines, as in English, the number and 
person of the verb: i aime ‘he loves’; ils aiment ‘they love.’ 
It also determines the number and gender of the complement : 
e.g. il est bon ‘he is good’; elles sont bonnes ‘they are good.’ 

b. The verb determines, as in English, the construction of 
the object (an indirect case-relation being in French always, 
except for conjunctive personal pronouns, expressed by the aid 
of prepositions): e.g. il aime son pére ‘he loves his father’ ; 
il pense a son pere ‘he thinks of his father’; il donne un livre 
& son pere ‘he gives a book to his father,’ or ‘his father a book.’ 

c. The adjuncts of above words modify their sense by various 
constructions. 

d. The direct order of arrangement requires, as in English, 
the subject with its adjuncts to come first, then the verb with 
its adjuncts, and finally the predicate complement or the object 
with their adjuncts: e.g. Ce bon pére—aime tendrement — ses 
jolis enfants ‘This good father loves dearly his pretty children,’ 





177-181.] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. _ 111 


e. The inverted order — used especially in interrogative and 
optative clauses when the subject is a pronoun, in interjected 
phrases like dit-il and the like, and after certain adverbs — 
requires the subject to follow the verb: e.g. ?aimez-vous ? ‘do 
you love her?’ puisse-t-il venir ‘may he come’; @ peine fut-il 
mort ‘hardly was he dead,’ | 


178. The peculiarities of syntactical constructions in French 
are described in detail in the following chapters. 


soe Ratalee Na Lae 
XI. 
ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 


[179. HISTORY.— The rules for the use of the various articles now 
observed in French were not yet fixed in the 17th century, and still less 
in the 16th. The definite article was then often omitted, where it is now 
required; and the nice distinctions in the use of the independent partitive 
sign were not observed. Hence, in the literature of those centuries, we 
frequently meet with expressions like the following: J/ vous assure et vie 
et liberté (instead of et la vie et la liberté, 195): Corneille. —.J’ai tendresse 
(inst. of de la tendresse) pour tot: id. — Des grosses (inst. of De grosses: 45) 
larmes lui tombent des yeux: Sévigné. And so on.] 


180. Use OF THE DEFINITE (or Generic) ARTICLE. — 
As has already been pointed out (40), le, la, les are used either 
— like the English ‘the’ — before nouns whose general mean- 
ing is individualized and thus made definite, or else — where 
in English, for the most part, no article occurs — before nouns 
used in their generic (and so far definite) sense. Special rules 
are given below. 


181. THE DEFINITE ARTICLE.— The definite article is used 
in French, on the whole, as in English. Still, in some cases, 
nouns are in French treated as determinate, while the English 
language treats them differently (using the indefinite article, or 
the possessive adjective, or no determinant at all, etc.). Thus: 


112 SYNTAX, [182-184. 


The Definite Article with Common Nouns: 


182. For Possessives.— The definite article is used 
instead of the possessive adjective with common nouns (espe- 
cially denoting parts of the body), where there can be no mis- 
understanding as to who is the owner of the object mentioned. 
— Ex. 


Elle leva les mains. She raised her hands. 
Elle a perdu la mémoire. She has lost her memory. 
Ti s’est cassé le bras. He has broken his arm. 


Elle avait les larmes aux yeux. She had tears in her eyes. 


Nore. — Quite common is this construction after avoir mal a@ ‘have a 
pain in.’ — Ex. J’ai mal @ /a téte (or J’ai un mal de téte) ‘I have a head- 
ache. J’ai mal aux dents (or J’ai le mal de dents) ‘I have the tooth-ache.’ 
J’ai mal au bras ‘TI have a sore arm.’ — Obs. ‘ headache’ etc. preceded by 
an adjective is usually expressed by mal de téte (e.g. un violent mal de 
téte etc.). ‘ 


[183.] The definite article is used for a possessive adjec- 
tive also in descriptive phrases with nouns connected by a 
preposition, when they are in English preceded by ‘ with’ 
in sense of ‘having, ‘holding’ (which is then omitted in 
French). — Ex. 

Il parait toujours le (or un) Healways appears with his (ora) 


livre & la main. book in his hand. 

Il vint, le parapluie sous Je Hecame withhis umbrellaunder 
bras. his arm. 

Le roi était assis sur son The king was seated on his 
tréne, le sceptre a Ta throne with his sceptre in 
main. his hand. 


[184.] The definite article is commonly used for a possessive 
adjective also in descriptive phrases with nouns denoting some 
constituent part or quality of an object, when they are governed 
by avoir and determined by an adjective or participle (which 
then regularly follows the noun), — Ex, 








184-187.] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 113 


Il a la téte grosse. He has a large head. 
Il a le bras cassé. His arm is broken. 
Elle a Pesprit pénétrant. She has a penetrating mind. 


Votre seeur a la bouche petite, Your sister has a small mouth, 
le teint beau et les yeux beautiful complexion, and blue 


bleus. eyes. 
Ils ont Pesprit fatigué. Their minds are tired. 
Le hétre a I’ écorce lisse. The beech has a.smooth bark. 


Ce couteau a le tranchant This knife has a dull edge. 
émoussé. 


Note 1.—The noun denoting the constituent part or quality is put in 
the singular even when referring to several objects, provided each of 
them would require that number. — Ex. Ces bétes ont la téte longue ‘These , 
animals have long heads’: and cf. ex. 5 above. 

Nore 2.— Constructions like i] a une grosse téte etc. are also allowable, 
especially when the thing itself rather than its quality is the object of the 
thought. 


185. The definite article is used before nouns considered 
distributively (where in English ‘each,’ ‘every,’ or ‘a’ may be 
used). This is especially the case before names of weight and 
measure; and also before designations of time, unless preceded 
by par. — Ex. 


La viande coite vingt sous la The meat costs twenty sous a 


livre. pound. 

J’ai payé cing dollars le baril. I have paid five dollars a barrel. 

Il perd six centimes Paune. He loses six centimes an ell. 

Il vient me voir le jeudi (les Hecomes to see me each Thurs- 
jeudis). day or on Thursdays. 

[But Jl vient six fois par He comes six times a (every) 
jour. day. | 


186. The definite article is used before names of fractional 
parts. — Ex. ; 


La moitié de ’armée One half of the army. 


114 SYNTAX. [187-190. 


187. The definite article is used before names of titles and 
professions when followed by a proper noun (except in direct 
address), or when preceded by monsieur, madame, or made- 
moiselle. — Ex. 

Le maréchal Ney a visité lem- Marshal Ney has called on the 
pereur. emperor. 

Monsieur le comte n'est pas The count is not at home. 
chez lui. 


188. The definite article is used in various idiomatic expressions that 
cannot conveniently be brought under any definite rules. — Ex. 


Soyez le bienvenu ! [Be] welcome! 

Je vous souhaite Je bonjour. I bid you good-day. 

Ii n’a pas Je sou. He has not a farthing. 
On crie au secours. Some one cries for help. 
Il demanda Pauméne. He asked alms. 

Je n’en ai pas le temps. I have no time for it. 
Je l’ai dit au hasard. I said it at a venture. 


The Definite Article with Proper Nouns: 


189. Except in direct address, the definite, article is used 
before all proper nouns that are determined by an adjunct (even, 
as seen below, where in similar cases English omits the arti- 
cle). — Ex. 


La vie du grand Corneille. The life of the great Corneille. 
Le Paris du quinziéme siecle. Paris of the fifteenth century. 
Le Cinna de Corneille. Corneille’s Cinna. 

Nore. — Proper names preceded by saint take the definite article only 


when denoting saints’ days, and it is then written Saint-.— Ex. C’était saint 
Jean ‘it was Saint John’; La (féie de understood) Saint-Jean ‘ mid-summer.’ 


[190.] Exceptionally the Jefinite article occurs before names of persons 
not thus determined, the rules being as follows: 

a. Personal names denoting plurality take the plural of the definite 
article, while they are themselves usually in the plural only when refer- 
ring to illustrious families or dynasties: e.g. Les Duval ‘The Duvals’; 
Les Bourbons ‘The Bourbons,’ 


PP een eee ee ee 





ee ee Oe oe eee eS, 


190-192.] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. Peeks 6 5). 


b. Names of illustrious individuals may be construed with the definite 
article in plural: e.g. Les Montesquieu, /es Rousseau ont illustré notre littéra- 
ture ‘A Montesquieu, a Rousseau have illustrated our literature.’ 

c. A few names of famous Italians and of celebrated or well-known 
persons, especially actresses, always take the definite article: e.g. Le Tasse 
‘Tasso’; le Corrége ‘Corregio’; La Patti; La Brinvilliers. 

d. Personal names used by way of comparison for other persons than 
the real owners, or, vicariously, as titles of books or works of art, take 
the definite article, both article and noun being construed in singular or 
plural as the case requires: e.g. Les Alexandres sont rares ‘ Alexanders are 
rare’; J’ai lu Je Télémaque ‘I have read T.’ Les Raphaels ou les Titiens 
sont bien précieux ‘ (Paintings by) Raphael or Titian are very precious.’ 


191. The definite article is generally (cf. 192) used with 
names of extended geographical features— such as countries 
(states, provinces, etc.) or large islands, mountains, rivers, seas, - 
and lakes — but not before names of small islands, cities and 
places. French then differs from English chiefly in using 
the article before names of countries and islands, and before 
mountains without exception. — Ex.: 

La Russie est grande. Russia is great. 
La France est bornée au midi France is bounded on the south 
par les Pyrénées et la Médi- by the Pyrenees and the Med- 


terranée. iterranean. 
La Navarre est une province. Navarre is a province. 
La Sicile est une grande ile. Sicily is a large island. 


Le Gange est un fleuve del’ Asie. The Ganges is a river in Asia. 
Le Liban est une montagne de Lebanon is a mountain in Syria. 
la Syrie. 


[192.] Eaception 1.—In the following cases the definite 
article is omitted before feminine names of countries in the 
singular (save la Chine and a few less common names of 
remote countries), provided they have no adjuncts: 

a. Always after en ‘in, to’ (used for dans, & before such 
feminines to denote in a general way the where): e.g. étre en 
France ‘be in France,’ passer en France ‘go to F.’ 


116 SYNTAX. f199. 


b. After de in sense of ‘from’: e.g. venir de France ‘come 
from F.’; or in sense of ‘of’ when it introduces an attributive 
genitive of distinction (= quality), which may be rendered 
without ambiguity by an adjective: e.g. le roi de France 
‘the king of F’ (= ‘the French king’); du vin de France 
‘French wine.’ 

Usage is not quite settled with regard to the retention or omission of 
the article after de ‘of.’ It is safe, however, to follow this rule: Use de 
/a in a possessive, partitive, or objective genitive [e.g. le pouvoir de la France ; 
le midi de la F. ; la dévastation de la F.|. Use de in a genitive of distinction 


[as of title: /e roi (’ambassadeur etc.) de F.: of origin: du vin de F.; of 
description or apposition: histoire de F.; le royaume de F.). 


Examples to 192: a. 

Il demeure en Allemagne. He lives in Germany. 

[But 7 demeure dans [Allee He lives in Southern Ger- 
magne méridionale. many. | 

Il va en Amérique. He goes to America. 


[But Jl va aux Indes, au He goesto India (pl. in French), 
Brésil, aux Etats-Unis, etc. Brazil, the United States, ete. | 


b. 

Il est venu de France. He has come from France. 

[But 7 est venu du Mexique He has come from Mexico or 
or de /a France méridionale. from Southern France. ] 

A mon retour d’ Italie. On my return from Italy. 

Chassé d’ Angleterre tl se ré- Banished from England he fled 
fugia en Amérique. to America. 

[But Chassé de la Chine il se Driven from China he fled to 
refugia aux Indes. India. | 

Le royaume d’ Espagne. The kingdom of Spain. 

Le roi de France. The king of France. 

La reinede la Grande-Bretagne. The queen of Great Britain. 

Dambassadeur de Prusse. The ambassador of Prussia. 


Le fer de Suede est excellent.. Swedish iron is excellent. 
Du drap d’ Angleterre. English cloth. 





192-195. ] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 117 


Un mille d’ Allemagne. A German mile. 

La paix de Westphalie. The treaty of Westphalia. 

Les limites de la France. The French confines. 

| Compare farther : 

Lambassadeur de France. Un marchand francais. <A 
The French ambassador. French merchant. 

Le roi de France. The king L’empereur de la Chine. The 
of France. emperor of China. 

Le fer de Suede. Swedishiron Le fer de la Suede. ‘The iron 
(= iron found in 8.). (= all the iron) of Sweden. 


T’histoire de France. (The) J/histoire de la France. The 
French history or The his- French history (as distin- 
tory of France. guished from Fr. geography 

: etc.). — Rare expression. 

Larmée d’ Egypte. The army L’armée del’ Egypte. The army 
of Egypt (= sent into E.). of Egypt (= belonging to E.). 

La république de Venise. The La république francaise. The 
Venetian republic. French republic. 

[193.] Exception 2.—a. Several names of countries derived from names 
of cities (such as Naples, Bade etc.) do not take the article. Others (like 
Hanovre, Brandebourg etc.) require it. 

b. Certain names of places have the definite article as a part of that name 
itself (often because its appellative origin is still felt). E.g. Le Havre 
(‘the Haven’) ‘Havre’; La Rochelle (‘the Rock’) ‘ Rochelle’; La Haye 
(‘the Enclosure ’) ‘ (the) Hague’; Le Care‘ Cairo’; La Mecque ‘ Mecca’. 


[194.] Usage varies with regard to names of rivers, the principle being 
generally the same as with names of countries: e.g. Je bois de eau de 
Seine ‘I drink Seine water.’ L’eau de /a Seine est bourbeuse ‘'The water of 
the Seine is muddy.’ Les vins du Rhin ‘ (the) Rhine wines.’ Le fleuve du 
Mississippi ‘the M. river.’ 

Exercisr I (end of the book). 

195. THe GENERIC ARTICLE (cf. 40, note). — French, un- 
like English, requires the generic (= definite) article before 
all nouns used in a generic sense, i.e. in such a way that ‘in 
general,’ ‘all,’ ‘every,’ may be understood with them (e.g. 


118 SYNTAX. : [195, 196. 


Lamour vient du ceur ‘ Love —i.e. love in general — comes 
from the heart.’ L’homme est mortel ‘Man —i.e. every man — 
is mortal.’ Les oiseaux ont des ailes ‘ Birds —i.e. as a genus 
— have wings’). 

In the singular, abstract or collective nouns and nouns of 
material are especially apt to be thus construed with the definite 
article, while in the plural any noun may be so construed. — Ex. 


Le vice est odieux. Vice is odious. 

Lorgueil et la vanité sont la Pride and vanity are the source 
source de bien des maux. of many evils. 

La société vivra toujours. Society will always live. 

L’or est un métal précieux. Gold is a precious metal. 

Le bleu vous sied bien. Blue is becoming to you. 

Aimez-vous le café ? Do you like coffee ? 

Le printemps est une belle saison. Spring is a beautiful season. 

Les enfants aiment a jouer. Children like to play. 

Les riches ne donnent pas tou- Rich people do not always 
jours. give. 


[196.] Names of languages require (a) Je when treated as 
nouns; but (b) no article after en, or when treated as adverbs 
after parler (cf. ex. under b. below). — Ex. 


a. 

Il apprend le francais. He learns French. 

Savez-vous le francais ? Do you know French? 

Il parle bien le francais. He speaks French well. 

Je parle un peu le frangais. I speak French a little. 

b. 

Il parle francais. He speaks French (i.e. ‘in the 
manner of the French’: ef. 
Lat. latine loquitur). 

Dites cela en frangais. Say that in French. 

Il faut penser en francais pour To speak French we must think 

parler francais. in French. 





Exercise If. 


_—_ 








197, 198.] ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 119 


UskE oF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 


197. The indefinite article is used, on the whole, as in 
English. It is to be observed, however, that before abstract 
nouns determined by an adjective, wn (une) is generally ex- 
pressed in French even if omitted in English (e.g. Ne prenez 
votre parti qwapres un mtr examen ‘'Take your decision only 
after mature consideration ’). 


Nore. — With tout, un follows: tout un monde ‘a whole world.’ 
About the omission of the indefinite article in French, cf. 203 ete. 


Usk oF THE PARTITIVE Sien (cf. 43). 


198. THE DEPENDENT PARTITIVE SIGN de is used after 
nouns and adverbs of quantity (size etc.), as described in 44. 

It is followed by the article (du, de la, des) after the adverb 
bien ‘much, many’ (provided no adjective precedes the noun 
limited) ; after superlative expressions (la plupart, le plus grand 
nombre, etc.); and, as also in English, when the noun limited 
is determined by other words following it. — Ex. 


J’ai acheié une quantité de I have bought a quantity of 


livres. books. 
Une foule de curieux le sui- A crowd of curious people fol- 
vaient. lowed him. 


Donnez-moi un morceau de Give me a piece of bread. 
pain. 
J'ai acheté beaucoup de livres. I have bought many books. 


Je wai pas assez de fleurs. I have not flowers enough. 

Ce jeune homme a plus de This young man has more ac 
connaissances que d’ amis. quaintances than friends. 

J’ai acheté bien des livres. I have bought many books. 

But Bien de braves gens. Many brave people. 


Il connait un grand nombre He knows a great number of 
des fables d’ Esope. the fables of Esop, 


120 SYNTAX. [198, 199. 


Nore 1.— The most common adverbs of quantity are: assez (never, as 
in English, placed after its noun) ‘enough,’ autunt ‘as much, as many,’ 
beaucoup ‘much, many,’ bien ‘much, many’ (requiring def. art.), combien 
‘how much?’ moins ‘less,’ peu ‘little,’ plus ‘more,’ tant ‘so much, so many,’ 
trop ‘too much, too many,’ trop peu ‘too little, too few,’ /a plupart ‘most’ 
(requiring def. art.). 

Nore 2.— De is a sort of pseudo-partitive connecting a preceding 
expression of number, quantity, or measure (negatives and indefinites 
inclusive) with a following predicative determinant: e.g. mille soldats de 
tués ‘a thousand soldiers killed’; pas un de debarqué ‘not one landed’; 
quelque chose de bon ‘something good’; rien de bon ‘nothing good’; y a-t-il 
personne d’assez imprudent? ‘is there any one unwise enough?’ pas de sitét 
‘not so soon.’ So also in expressions like: suis-je de trop? ‘am I too many?’ 
qui est le plus grand de César ou de Napoleon? ‘who is the greater C. or N.?’ 


199. THE INDEPENDENT PARTITIVE SIGN (or Partitive 
Article : 45). — The independent partitive sign, unless excluded 
by a preceding de (46), is used before abstract or collective 
nouns and nouns of material in the singular, and before any 
noun in the plural, when an undefined portion of the entire 
thing designated by these nouns is contemplated. 

This partitive sign, as already described (45), is de alone; 
a. when the partitive noun is determined by a preceding adjec- 
tive; and b. when a preceding negation affects the partitive 
noun rather than the verb or a modifier of that noun, Ze. 
generally when that noun is the unmodified accusative object 
of a negative verb. 


EXAMPLES: 
de with the article : de alone: 
Ii a du courage. He has Il n'a point de courage. He 
courage. has no courage. 
J’ai du vin. I have (some) J’ai de bon vin. I have (some) 
wine. good wine. 


J’ai du vin rouge et de Peau J'ai de belles fleurs et d’excellents 
fraiche. I have some red fruits. I have (some) fine 
wine and fresh water. flowers. and excellent fruit. 

Avez-vous des livres? Have Non, je n'ai pas de livres. No, 
you some (or any) books ? I have no~books. 


ee ee ae a 





199.] 


Dans cette montagne il y a du 
fer, du cuivre et de lor. 
There is iron, copper, and 
gold in this mountain. 


Je ne ferai pas des remarques 
indiscrétes la-dessus. I 
shall not make heedless re- 
marks on the _ subject 
(though some remarks will 
be made). 

Je n'ai pas des sentiments si 
bas. I have not such base 
feelings. 

Ne donnez jamais des conseils 


qwil soit dangereux de suivre. 


Never give advice which it 
may be dangerous to follow. 

T’avare n’amasse des trésors 
que pour lui. The miser 
heaps up treasures for him- 
self alone. 

Ceci n’est pas de lor, c’est du 
cuivre. This is not gold, 
it is copper. 


ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 


121 


Il sexpose & de graves erreurs, 
a d’étranges mécomptes, en 
jugeant ainsi. He is liable 
to make serious mistakes, 
strange errors, in - judging 
thus. 

Je ne ferai pas de remarques 
la-dessus. I shall make no™ 
remarks on the subject. 


Cet homme n’a guere de senti- 
ments. This man _ hardly 
has any feelings. _ 

Il ne m’a jamais donné de con- 
seils du tout. He has never 
given me any advice at all. 


Le prodigue n’accumule jamais 
de richesses. The spendthrift 
never amasses riches. 


Il contredit sans avoir d’opin- 
ion. He contradicts without 
having any opinion. 


Note 1.—TIf the partitive noun forms with a preceding adjective a 
compound, whether in form or idea, it takes the definite article. — Ex. 
Ii a des petits-fils ‘He has grand-sons’ (but de petits fils ‘little sons’). 1 


a montré du bon sens ‘ He has shown good sense.’ 


Des jeunes gens ‘young people.’ 


De Ia bonne foi ‘honesty.’ 


In popular style, du, de la, des are freely used whenever an adjective 
precedes the noun (e.g. du bon vin, de la bonne bieére, etc.). 

Nore 2.—In negative-interrogative sentences, de with the article de- 
notes rather an appeal with implied affirmation than a real question, which 


122 SYNTAX. (199-201. 


is expressed by de alone. — Ex. N’avez vous pas de la santé, des amis? que 
vous faut-il de plus? ‘Have you not health, friends? What more do you 
need? N’avez vous pas d’argent? ‘Have you no money 2’ 

Nore 3.— By an extended use of the partitive sign, it sometimes serves 
to denote ‘the character of,’ and the like; and the whole partitive expres- 
sion is then often best rendered by an abstract noun or an adjective. — 
Ex. Quand il a fallu montrer de ’homme, ils se sont sauvés ‘When it became 
necessary to show manliness, they fled.’ Ce latin est du Cicéron tout pur 
‘This is pure Ciceronian Latin.’ 

Similar constructions sometimes verge on being pure genitives of char- 
acteristic. : 


[200.] If in a partitive expression an adjective is used as a noun, it is 
construed as such. If it is used alone, but with the noun understood, 
it is construed as it would be if the noun were expressed, unless, indeed, 
that noun be represented by the particle en, in which case the adjective is 
always preceded by de alone. — Ex. Dans cette ville il y a des riches et des 
pauvres ‘There are rich and poor people in this town.’ J’ai du vin blane 
et du rouge ‘I have white wine and red.’ J/ a de bon vin, et d’adultérég 
‘He has good wine, and adulterated.’ Ces fleurs sont belles; il y en a de 
rouges, de jaunes et de blanches ‘These flowers are beautiful; some are 
red, some are yellow and some white.’ 


[201.] It has already been noted (46) that the partitive 
de and the following article are both excluded by a preceding 
de (‘of, from, with, by’). — Ex. 

L’araignée vit’de mouches The spider lives on flies. 

(not “de des~mouches). 

Je parle-de bons livres et-de I speak of good books and good 


bons amis. friends. 
On le combla’ de bienfaits. He was overwhelmed with kind- 
nesses. 


Aucun. mortel n’est exempt de No mortal is free from faults. 
défauts. 


Il a besoin” argent. He is in need of money. 
Il a soif~de sang. He is blood-thirsty. 
Voila un palais“de marbre. Behold, a marble palace. 





Exercise III. 





Le ae ee ee 


202, 203.) ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 128 


REPETITION OF ARTICLES AND PARTITIVE SIGN. 


202. The articles and the partitive sign must be repeated 
before each noun or adjective denoting a different object, and 


. before every superlative. — Cf. 


REPEATED: Nor REPEATED: 
Le garcon et Phomme. The La Gaule ow France. Gaul or 
boy and the man. France (synonymous). 


Les grands et Jes petits états. Les grands et puissants états, 
The great and the small The great and powerful states. 
states. 


Ex. for superlatives, under 229. 


OMISSION OF ARTICLES. 


203. The articles (the partitive included) are omitted in 
numerous phrases, corresponding to similarly construed phrases 
in English, or wholly peculiar to French. 

This omission occurs especially :—a. in certain set expressions 
where the noun forms a phrase with the verb, as in avoir faim 
(soif, froid, etc.) ‘be or feel hungry (thirsty, cold,’ etc.), faire 
beau temps (froid, chaud, etc.) ‘be warm (cold, fine,’ etc. with 
reference to weather), or with a preposition, as in d cheval ‘on 
horseback,’ & dessein ‘on purpose,’ etc. —b. when the noun 
explains predicatively what a person is or is made, or apposi- 
tively what a thing or person is;—c. before successive nouns, 
where in English no article would be used. (For details see 


below, 204.) — Ex. 


a. 
J’ai faim ( sian chaud, froid). I am hungry (thirsty, warm, 
cold) ;—lit. ‘I have hunger’ 


ete. 
J’ai mal & ta téle (aux yeux, I have a headache (sore eyes, a 
au bras). sore arm);—Jit. ‘I have a 


pain in’ etc, 


124 SYNTAX. [203, 204. 


Il fait beau temps (froid, It is fine weather (cold, warm) 


chaud) aujourd’ hui. to-day. 
Faites attention. Pay attention. 
Prenez garde qwil ne tombe. Take care he does not fall. 
Il est a cheval. He is on horseback. 
Ii Va fait & dessein.” He has done it on purpose. 
b. 
Il est Francais. He is a Frenchman. 
Il fut fait ministre. He was made minister. 
Nous lisons Athalie, tragédie We are reading Athalie, a tra- 
de Racine. gedy by Racine. 
; c. | 
Espérance, courage, cest tout Hope, courage, that is all we 
ce qwil nous faut. need. 
Ii na ni pére ni mére. He has neither father nor 
mother. 


Nothing short of extensive observation can make the student 
familiar with the practice of omitting articles. The chief 
details of the rule, as stated above, are, however, given below. 


[204.] Articles are omitted: 

A. In many set phrases and brief or elliptical expressions, as: 

1. Before certain abstract nouns governed by avoir (avoir faim ete. ‘ve 
hungry’ etc., avoir raison ‘be right,’ avoir soin ‘take care,’ avoir envie ‘have 
a mind, desire,’ and so on), faire (faire attention ‘pay attention,’ faire peur 
‘scare,’ faire piti¢é ‘arouse pity,’ etc.), prendre (prendre garde ‘take care,’ 
prendre patience ‘have patience,’ etc.), rendre (rendre justice ‘do justice,’ 
rendre graces ‘return thanks,’ etc.), and some other verbs. 

2. In many descriptive or qualifying phrases consisting of a preposition 
(especially a, avec, de, en, sans, par) and a noun: e.g. @ cheval ‘on horse- 
back,’ @ dessein ‘on purpose,’ &@ prétentions (a man) ‘ with pretentions,’ avec 
plaisir ‘with pleasure,’ en homme de ceur ‘as a courageous man,’ sans peur 
‘without fear,’ par an ‘by the year, a year,’ sans mot dire ‘without a word.’ 

3. In condensed phrases generally, as in titles of books, addresses, 
advertisements, proverbial expressions, etc.: e.g. chapitre second ‘second 
chapter’; Contes d’un grand-pére ‘Tales of a grand-father’ ; Maison a@ louer 
‘House for rent’; Zl loge rue Richelieu ‘He lives on R. street’; Contente- 
ment passe richesse ‘Contentment is better than riches,’ 


: 
| 
q 
a 
{ 
by 





204, 205.] NOUNS. 125 


B. Often before a predicate or appositional noun, viz. : 

1. Before a predicate noun qualifying in a general waya personal 
subject or object, designating what it is; becomes, looks like (i.e. after 
étre, devenir; naitre, mourir; paraitre, etc.), but never after c’est, ce sont, or 
when the noun is determined by other words. — Ex. I] est Américain ‘ He is 
an American.’ Ils sont anglais ‘They are English(men).’ Son frére est 
médecin ‘His brother is a physician. David devint roi d’Israél ‘ David 
became king of Israel.’ Je le réputais homme d’honneur ‘I considered him 
a man of honor, Ji mourut chrétien ‘He died a Christian” T/ veut se 
faire soldat ‘ He wishes to turn soldier.’ — But C’est un Américain ‘It is an 
American.’ Ce sont des Anglais ‘They are Englishmen.’ Ces messieurs 
sont des marchands qui vont a la foire ‘These gentlemen are merchants 
going to the fair’ (but sont marchands ‘ are merchants.’). 

2. Before an appositional noun, when used simply to describe or 
point out what may not be known.—Ex. Horace, poéte célébre ‘H., a 
celebrated poet.’ But: Horace, le célébre poéte ‘H., (the well known) cele- 
brated poet’ or ‘H., the poet (as distinguished from the painter).’ 

3. Before nouns enumerated in rapid succession, or used antithet- 
ically, or preceded by sans, ni, soit, when the article is omitted also in 
English, or by jamais ‘never a.’— Ex. Soldats, officiers, citoyens, tous le 
suivirent. — (Hil pour wil. Jour et nuit.— Il est sans argent. La nature ne 
fait ni princes ni seigneurs. Soit paresse, soit faiblesse, il n’apprend rien. — 
Jamais roi ne fut plus aimé. 





Exercise IV. 





aeeseeS Se 


XII. 
NOUNS. 


[205. HISTORY. — As the Latin case-forms gradually disappeared in 
French, the use of prepositions to denote all individual relations of the noun 
in the sentence became more and more frequent, and this use forms an 
important part of the French Syntax. It may be noticed here that the 
actual use of prepositions in several instances varies from that adhered to 
even in the 17th century: e.g. La foi du (for au) Messie et de ses mer- 
veilles (Bossuet); Se laisser flatter a (for par) une douce espérance (id.); 
Je me laissais séduire a (for par) cet aimable guide (Racine) ; Et le peuple 
inégal @ l’endroit des (for & l’égard des) tyrans (Corneille). Even yet some 
freedom of choice is in this respect allowed. ] 


126 SYNTAX. (206-208. 


206. NOUNS WITHOUT PREPOSITION. — As in English, 
the noun has no preposition, when it is a. subject, b. in predi- 
cate, c. direct object, and d. sometimes (not then always agree- 
ing with the English) when it is used adverbially. — Ex. 


a. Le pere vient. The father comes. 

b. C’est mon pére. It is my father. 

c. Je vois son pere. I see his father. 

d. Il viendra ce soir. He will come this evening. 

Il m’a vendu ce cheval cing He has sold this horse to me 
cents francs. for 500 frances. 
And cf. 184-5. 


207. The predicate noun may refer either a. to the subject 
(subject complement), or b. to the object (object complement). 
The latter occurs after verbs of making, electing or declaring, 
considering, and the like. 


a. C'est mon pere. It is my father. 
Il est né poete. He is a born poet. 
Nous nous quittdmes bons We parted good friends. 
amis. 
b. On le fit général. He was made general. 


Le roiVlanommé ministre. The king has appointed him to 
be a minister. | 
Le sénat le déclara ennemi The senate declared him his 
de la patrie. country’s enemy. 

Je lVestime mon ami. I consider him (to be) my friend. 

Notre. — After verbs of making, declaring, etc., pour or comme is often 
used before the predicate word. — Ex. Ils le choisirent pour général ‘They 
chose him for general.’ Je le considérais (comme) mon ami ‘1 considered 
him as a friend of mine.’ 


208. Transitive verbs admit two or more direct objects 
when these are codrdinated. Otherwise only one. Indirect 
object-nouns are governed by a preposition, which can never 
be omitted (as sometimes ‘to’ in English). — Ex. IU enseigne 
la géographie & mon enfant ‘He teaches my child geography.’ 
Je donne le livre & mon ami ‘I give my friend the book,’ 


Ie Pee ee ee 


208, 209.] NOUNS. 127 


Nore 1.—Fa/sre forms with a following infinitive a causative 
verb-phrase requiring a direct personal object, if there is no 
other direct object (Je /e fais lire <I make him read’); other- 
wise an indirect, i.e. a dat. (Je /ui fais lire le livre; Je fais lire 
le livre @ Il’enfant ‘1 make him read the book’; ‘I make the 
child read the book’).— Also laisser and verbs of perception 


may be so construed. — Ex. 


Jele feraivenir. Je ferai venir 


ce gargon. 

Je lui ferais prendre ce reméde ; 
Je ferais prendre ce reméde 
a l'enfant. 

Faites-le répéter ; Faites répéter 
sa legon @ ce gargon. 

Les Francais ont fait adopter 
aux autre peuples la plupart 
de leurs usages. 

J’ai fait (or laissé) voir mes 
livres a@ ces enfants. 

Les larmes que jai vu verser 
a cette fille m’on touché. 

J’ai entendu dire d@ (or par) 
mon frere qwil viendra. 


I shall make him come. I shall 
make this boy come. 

I shall make him take this rem- 
edy; I shall make the child 
take this remedy. 

Make him repeat; Have this 
boy recite his lesson. 

The French have caused other 
people to adopt most of their 
customs. 

I haveshown my books to these 
children. 

The tears I have seen this girl 
shed have touched me. 

I have heard my brother say 
that he will come. 


Nore 2.— Observe in phrases like Je les lui _ferai voir etc. the position of 
both the object-pronouns before faire. 


EXERCISE V. 


209. NOUNS WITH A PREPOSITION.— Since all relations 
of a noun not described in the preceding (206-8) must be 
expressed by the aid of prepositions, the right use of these is, 
of course, of much importance. A brief account of the princi- 
pal laws for that use — to be supplemented by observation and 
the aid of a good dictionary — is given below. 


128 SYNTAX. (210, 211. 


210. De.—The original meaning of this preposition is 
‘from,’ whence all its later uses. It forms with the noun 
either:—a. an attributive phrase (denoting possession, quality, 
kind, name of another noun, or portion), or —b. an adverbial 
phrase (denoting place or time whence, origin, cause, means, etc.). 
It generally corresponds to the English possessive ending ’s or 
the preposition ‘of,’ ‘from,’ or ‘by’ (denoting condition rather 
than action, which, especially when physical, is expressed by 
par: ef. 215). — Ex. 


a. 
Le livre de la fille. The girl’s book. 
La bonté de ma mere. My mother’s kindness (The 
kindness of my mother). 
Une table d’ acajou. A table of mahogany. 
La ville de Paris. The city of Paris. 
Le voyage du Rhin. The journey on the Rhine 
(Rhine journey). 
Une douzaine d’cefs. A dozen eggs. 
b. 
Ii vient de Paris. He comes from Paris. 
Un livre du quinziéme siecle. A book from the 15th century. 
Le fer de Suede est bon. Swedish iron is good (192, b). 
Il est mort de faim. He has died of hunger. 


Il est bien aise de votre He is very glad of your arrival. 
arrivée. 

Il est respecté de tous. He is respected by everybody. 

[But Jl fut trouvé par un chien. He was found by a dog. |] 


[211.] De is often used where English requires some other preposition 
than ‘of,’ ‘from,’ or ‘by,’ or no preposition at all. Thus it is used — 
a. Where, in relations similar to those described above, English has ‘for 
(on account of),’ ‘ with,’ ‘in,’ ‘ about,’ etc. —b. As a partitive sign (34-37). 
—c. To express the ‘by how much’ before names of measure of any kind, 


+t" 


me yee a Clb, aha 
— es 


211.) NOUNS. 129 


or age; and before the name of a musical instrument after jouer ‘ play.’ — 
d. After superlatives for English ‘in.’—e. Often before terms of compar- 
ison that follow an interrogative verb and are connected by ou.—f. For 
‘as’ after servir, traiter, qualifier.— g. After abuser, proche and approcher 
(or s’approcher, but also approcher without de, especially before names of 
persons), changer (when son etc. is omitted), décider, jouir, juger, redoubler 
(followed by an abstract noun), user ‘use’ (user ‘wear,’ without de), and 
several reflexive verbs that are rendered as transitives in English: e.g. 
s’apercevoir ‘ perceive,’ se défier ‘ distrust,’ se douter ‘suspect,’ etc. — Ex. 


a. Je le punis de sa faute. I punish him for his fault. 
Je n’en puis plus de lassitude. I can do nothing more for (on account 
of ) weariness. 
Tl était armé dun fusil. He was armed with a gun. 
Il m’a comblé de bienfaits. He has overwhelmed me with kind- 
nesses. 
Il agit de bonne foi. He acts in good faith. 
Cela dépend de vous That depends on you. 
(Lat. de-pendere ‘hang from’). 
b. J’ai du pain. I have some bread. 
Jai beaucoup d’argent. I have much money. 
c. Ce clocher est haut de deux cents ) 
pieds ; or ‘ ; : 
Deicke i. dium conti pide de one steeple is two hundred feet high. 


hauteur (or de haut). 
Vous étes plus grand que moi de You are two inches taller than I. 


deux pouces. 

Il est dgé de trois ans. He is three years old. 

Le prix de ce livre estde cing The price of this book is five dollars. 
dollars. 


Ma montre avance (retarde) de My watch is four minutes fast (slow). 
quatre minutes. 


J’ai un dollar de trop. I have one dollar too much. 
Il joue du violon (cf. au billard: He plays (on, as if ‘from’) the 
213, a). violin. ~ 
d. Elle est la plus belle fille de la She is the finest girl in the city. 
ville. 
e. Qui fut le plus grand homme, Who was the greatest man, Alexan- 
d’ Alexandre, de César ou de der, Cesar or Napoleon ? 
_ Napoléon? 


130 SYNTAX. 211-213. 


f. Il me servira de guide. He shall serve me as guide. 
Je l’ai traité de prince. I treated him as (called him) prince. 
[Je Pai traité en prine. I treated him like a prince. ] 
g. 1 (s’)approcha de la ville He approached the city. 
C11 approcha la ville). 
Il a changé d’ opinion. He has changed his mind. 
Il faut changer d’habits. We must change clothes. 
Je jouis de sa faveur. I enjoy his (her) favor. 
Il redoubla d’ efforts. He redoubled his efforts. 
Je me suis apergu du piége que I perceived the snare they had laid 
Von m’avait tendu. for me. 
Je me doutais de sa trahison. I suspected his treason. 


212. 4.—The principal meaning of the preposition @ is 
‘to,’ or ‘at,’ whence its other uses. It forms with the noun 
either: —a. the indirect (personal or personified) object or — 
b. an adverbial phrase (denoting direction, position, aim, pur- 
pose, addition, etc.). Generally it corresponds to the English 
“to, ‘till, ‘at,’ or ‘in’ when equivalent to ‘at’ (i.e. generally 
before names of cities, towns, etc.). — Ex. 


a 


Je donnerat ce livre a ma I shall give this book to my 
sour. sister. 
Il @ promis & sa mére de He has promised (to) his mother 
changer de conduite. to change his conduct. 
Il est enclin & Vivrognerie. He is inclined to drunkenness. 
b. 
Il ira demain a Paris. He is going to Paris to-morrow. 


Tl est @ Paris (a la maison). He is in Paris (at home). 

Cet homme aspire au pouvoir. This man aspires to power. 

Il sait ailier la douceur ad la He knows how to combine 
gravité. gentleness with dignity. 


[213.] A is often used where English requires other prepositions than 
‘to, ‘at,’ ‘in,’ or no preposition at all. Thus —a. In descriptive phrases 


7 
3 
a 
J 
“a 
“s 
uf 
i 
= 
Re: 
y 
- 


ee wee ee Chae le ee le 





213, 214.} NOUNS. 131 


denoting manner or instrument, purpose or (with /e) ingredient, ete. — 
b. After ma/ denoting ‘pain.’ —c. In the phrase étre @ ‘belong to.’ —d. To 
form with a noun the indirect object after certain verbs which, if 
resolved into a verb and a noun or adjective, would naturally be 
followed by @ ‘to,’ or which in Latin usually take a dative object (e.g. 
conseiller ‘ advise’ = ‘ give advice,’ promettre, répondre; nuire ‘harm’= ‘do 
harm,’ plaire, satisfaire ; obéir, renoncer, résister ; penser, ressembler ; or whose’ 
meaning implies a separation of something from the indirect object 
(acheter, arracher, enlever, dter, ravir, soutirer, emprunter, demander, échapper 
—all except demander also allowing, in certain uses, de instead of a). 
—e. Cf. 186, note 1.— Ex. 


a. [1 vient @ cheval. He comes on horseback. 
Il parle @ haute voix. He speaks in a loud voice. 
Il péche & la ligne. He fishes with a line (angles). 
Il joue au biliard (ef. du violon;: He plays billiards. 
211, c). : 
Il Va fait & dessein. He has done it on purpose. 
Un homme & cheveux blancs. A man with white hair. 
Une chambre & coucher. A bedroom. 
Une machine @ vapeur. A steam-engine. 
De la soupe au lait. Milk soup. 
b. J’ai mal @ la téte. I have the headache. 
Il a mal aux dents. He has toothache. 
d. Ce livre est @ moi. This book belongs to me. 
e. Je pense a ma mere. I am thinking of my mother. 
J’ obéirai & vos conseils. I shall obey your advice. 
Il a promis a son pére de changer He has promised his father to change 
de conduite. his conduct. 
J’ai acheté ce livre a mon frere. I have bought this book of my 
brother. 
N’arrachez pas cet enfant @ sa Donot tear this child from its mother. 
mere. 
Jai emprunté mille francs @ mon I have borrowed 1000 francs from my 
ami. friend. 


214. Dans, en ‘in, into,’ etc. — Dans, being always followed 
by a defined noun (i.e. a noun preceded by an article, pronoun, 
or numeral) denotes location more definitely than en, which is 


_rarely followed by a defined noun, and which often introduces 


132 


SYNTAX, 


(214. 


an adverbial phrase of manner, means, form, etc. ‘In the 
year (or month) of’ is usually expressed by en. — Ex. 


Ii est dans /e (or au) magasin. 
He is in (or at) the store. 

. Dans la derniére guerre. In 
the last war. 

Les poissons vivent dans Ia 
mer. Fishes live in the 
ocean. 

Ii demeure dans I’ Allemagne 
méridionale. He lives in 


Southern Germany (cf. 192). 


Dans I’hiver de 1880. In the 
winter of 1880. 


Il est dans une situation dange- 
reuse. He is in a danger- 
ous situation. 

Dans (or en) ce moment. At 

this moment. 


Le blé est en magasin. ‘The 
wheat is stored. 
En temps de guerre. In time of 


war. 
Les vaisseaux sont en pleine mer. 
The ships are in open sea. 


Il demeure en Allemagne. He 
lives in Germany. 


En été; en juin. In summer; 
in June. (But, by exception, 
au printemps ‘In spring.’) 

Il n’agit pas en secret, il agit en 
honnéte homme. He does not 
act in secret, he acts like an 
honest man. 

En mil huit cent quinze. 
1815. 


In 


Nore 1.— With reference to location, dans ‘in’ points directly to the 
inside, a ‘in, at’ simply to the where, and en to a general situation or con- 
dition. — Cf.: i est dans le magasin ‘he is in the store’ (i.e. inside it some- 
where) ; ¢/ est au magasin ‘he is in the store,’ or ‘at the store,’ or ‘near the 


store’; le blé est en magasin ‘the wheat is stored.’ 


Dans la ville ‘in the 


city,’ a la ville ‘in town’ (as opposed to @ la campagne) ; en ville ‘in town’ 


(= gone out). 


Note 2.— With reference to time, dans means ‘in= by the end of,’ 
and en ‘in =in the course of’; but they are sometimes used without much 


distinction. — Ex. 


Je pars dans deux heures. 
J’ai fait le trajet en deux heures. 
D’aujourd’hui en huit (en quinze). 


I leave in two hours (from now). 
I have crossed over in two hours. 
A week (A fortnight) hence. 


~ 


EPROP Ke) ee Ts he 





915-217.) NOUNS. 183 


215. Par ‘through, by, per. — This preposition refers to motion, dura- 
tion, or units of time; or, interchangeably with de, to manner or motive. 
After passive verbs, it is used, instead of de, especially when the verb 
expresses an external or physical action. — Ex. 


_ Il a passé par la ville. He has passed through the city. 

Venez par ici (par la). Come this way (that way). 

Elle a trois dollars par semaine. She gets three dollars a week. 

I Va fait par crainte. He has done it for fear. 

Il a obtenu cela par force ou par He has obtained that by force or 
adresse. skill. 

Il fut maltraité par les soldats. He was maltreated by the soldiers. 

L’ Egypte est baignee par les eaux du Egypt is watered by the waters of 
Nil. the Nile. 

L’ Amérique fut découverte par Chris- America was discovered by Chris- 
tophe Colomb. topher Columbus. 


" 216. With regard to the remaining prepositions it will be sufficient to 
notice here: 

a. Of those which denote position avant refers almost exclusively to 
time alone, aprés to time or place, and the others (devant, hors, etc.) to 
place (or condition) alone. 

b. Avec means ‘with = in company with.’ 

c. Chez ‘with, among, at the house of’ often refers to one’s home or 
country (e.g. chez nous ‘at our house’ or ‘with us’; chez les Romains 
‘among the Romans,’ etc.). 

d. Entre usually refers to two objects (or to several when mutuality is 
expressed), parmi to several objects. 

e. A travers denotes ‘through’ without implied resistance, but au 
travers de, ‘through’ with an implied resistance. This distinction is 
obsolescent. 

f. Vers expresses physical, but envers moral direction or relation. 


217. REPETITION OF PREPOSITIONS. — De, a, and en must 
be repeated before each noun whose relation in the sentence 
they determine; but the other prepositions may be repeated 
or omitted much as in English. — Ex. 


Il mourut couvert de gloire et He died covered with glory and 
de blessures. wounds, 


134 SYNTAX. (217-219. 


Il dut la vie @ la clémence et He owed his life to the clem- 


a la magnanimité du vain- ency and magnanimity of the 
queur. conqueror. 

C'est un excellent travailleur He is an excellent worker in 
en cuivre, en argent et en or. copper, silver, and gold. 

Il a péri par les ruses et les He was ruined by the strategy 
artifices de ses enneinis. and artifice of his enemies. 
Il a péri par la haine de ses He perished through the hatred 
ennemis et par la ldcheté de of his enemies and the cow- 

ses amis. . ardice of his friends. 





Exercise VI. 





Ca ot Saas 


XIII. 
ADJECTIVES, 


[218, HISTORY. — The construction of adjectives, like that of nouns, 
was not altogether the same two centuries ago that it is now. Thus, they 
were then generally made to agree with the last only of several nouns; 
jeu and nu always agreed with the noun qualified (cf. 219 note 2); the 
complement of an adjective often took a different preposition from the one 
now required; the position of the adjective with reference to the noun 
was much freer than now: and so on. ] ° 


AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 


219. Adjectives qualifying one word agree with it in 
gender and number. 


Le bon garcon. The good boy. 

Les bonnes /illes. The good girls. 

Le gargon est bon et les filles The boy is good, and the girls 
sont ausst bonnes. are also good. 


Je swis bon (or bonne: accord- I am good. 
ing to the gender of je). 

Vous étes bon (or bonne, or You are good. 
bons, bonnes : 100, note 2). 


219, 220.] ADJECTIVES. 135 


Des bas de sofe blanche. Stockings of white silk. 
Des bas de soie blanes. White silk-stockings. 


220. Adjectives qualifying in English by more than one 
word are treated somewhat differently according as in French 
they precede or follow those words. 

1. Ifthey precede the words they qualify, they are repeated 
before each, agreeing with it in gender and number. — Ex. 


Le bon gargon et la bonne fille. The good boy and girl. 


2. If they follow the nouns (whether as attributes or 
predicates) they are subject to the following rules: 

a. Adjectives qualifying nouns connected by ef (or by ou, if 
equivalent to et) and denoting distinct objects, agree with them 
all collectively, being in the plural. Their gender is that of 
the nouns qualified. If these differ, the adjective is in the 
masculine (and then the masc. noun usually is placed nearest 
its adjective, when the latter has a distinct feminine form). 

b. Adjectives qualifying logically only one of the preceding 
words (these being separated by ow ‘or,’ or being synonymous), 
or by emphasis, the last one of nouns placed in gradation, 
agree in gender and number with the nearest one of the words 
referred to. 


Examples : — 
a. 3 
Le pére et la mére sont bons. The father and the mother are 
good. 
J’étudie la langue et la littéra- I study the French language 
ture francaises. and literature. 
Une prudence et un courage An astonishing prudence and 
_ (better than Un ce. et une p.) courage. 


étonnants. 
Ils se nourissent de chair ou They live on raw flesh or fish 
de poisson crus. (i.e. on both, ou = et). 


136 SYNTAX. (220. 
b. 

Un courage ou une prudence An astonishing prudence or 
étonnante. courage. 

On ne sait pas encore si cest It is not yet known if it is a 
un homme ou une femme man or woman drowned. 
noyée. 

Sa vie n’est quun travail et His fife is but continual labor, 
une occupation continuelle ; continual occupation. 


[orgu’un travail, (qu’) une etc. | 
Le fer, le bandeau, la lamme The sword, the bandage, the =e 
est toute préte (poetic). is all ready. 


Nore 1.— Expressions like ‘The French and German languages’ may be: 


rendered either by Les langues francaise et allemande, or La langue francaise 
et la langue allemande. 

Note 2.—€/-inclus ‘inclosed,’ ci-joint ‘annexed’ are invariable, 
except when followed by the definite article; also feu ‘ defunct, late,’ 
except when preceded by the definite article. — Ex. 


Ci-inclus vous trouverez la copie du Inclosed you will find a copy of the 


contrat. contract. 

Vous trouverez ci-inclus copie'du You will find inclosed a copy of the 
contrat. contract. 

Je vous envoie ci-incluse la copie du I send you inclosed the copy of the 
contrat. contract. 

Feu la reine (or La feue reine). The late queen. 


Notre 3.—An adjective following avoir lair ‘have the aspect, look 
(like) ’ agrees with air (masc.) or with the noun-subject, according as it 
is applicable to the one or the other. — Ex. 


Cette peinture a lair gai. This painting looks cheerful. 
Cette soupe a lair bonne. This soup looks as if it were good. 
Elle a Vair content (or contente= She looks satisfied. 


d’étre contente). 


Note 4.— Demi ‘half,’ nu ‘bare,’ and the participial adjectives attendu 
‘considering, excepté ‘excepted,’ passé ‘past,’ suppose ‘supposed,’ vu 
‘seen,’ y compris ‘inclusive’ are inflected only when following their noun. 
Before the noun demi and nu are joined to it with a hyphen (653, B), the 
others are treated as if prepositions. — Compare: 


: aie 


220, 221.) ADJECTIVES. 137 


UNINFLECTED : INFLECTED: 

Une demi-livre. A half-pound. Une livre et demie. A pound and a half, 

Nu-téte et nu-pieds. Bareheaded and Téte nue et pieds nus. Bare head and 
barefoot. bare feet. 

Excepté les dames. Except the Les dames exceptées. The ladies 
ladies. excepted. 

Attendu les événements. Considering Des événements attendus. Expected 
the events. events. 


Note 5.— Adjectives used as adverbial predicates (166) are invariable. 
— Ex. Que ces fleurs sentent bon! ‘How sweet these flowers smell!’ 


Exercise VII. 


PLACE oF ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES. 


221. The place of the attributive adjective before or after 
its noun, though largely optional, is yet in the main deter- 
mined: a. by the emphasis of the adjective; b. by more or less 
fixed usage for certain adjectives. Thus: 

a. The adjective precedes the noun when it attributes to the 
object denoted by that noun a quality which we naturally (by 
necessity, compliment, or general understanding) associate with 
it, and which as such is unemphatic: e.g. la blanche neige ‘the 
white snow’ (it could have no other color); le cruel tyran ‘the 
cruel tyrant.’ But it is placed after its noun when it attributes 
to the object denoted by that noun a quality which, as not 
belonging to it as a matter of course, is (so far) emphatic: 
e.g. la rose blanche ‘the white rose’ (it might be red etc.); 
un homme cruel ‘a cruel man.’ 

b. Some adjectives by fixed usage ordinarily have a fixed 
position, either before or after their noun, viz.: 

before their noun: 1. beau, joli; bon, meilleur ; mauvais, pire ; 
jeune, vieux (may follow); gros; sot;—2. some others in a 
certain sense, as described 122, list. 

after their noun (chiefly in virtue of the main rule): 1. ad. 


138 SYNTAX. [221. 


jectives denoting shape or color (may precede), nationality, re- 
ligion, title, or those derived from proper names (e.g. frangais, 
catholique, etc.);—2. past participles (aimé, etc.); —3. nouns 


used as adjectives (trompeur, etc.);—4. cf. 122, list. 


we 


Examples to 221: 


THE ADJECTIVE BEFORE: 
Le vertueux Caton. The vir- 
tuous Cato. 


Un doux parfum. <A sweet 
perfume. 

La puissante main d Her- 
cule. The mighty hand of 
Hercules. 

Les fameuses pyramides 
d Egypte. The famous 
pyramids of E. 

Le malheureux homme périt. 
The unhappy man (spoken 
of before) perished. 

Mon frere est un bon garcon. 
My brother is a good boy. 

De beau drap. Fine cloth. 

Je connais une jeune fille. | 
know a young girl. 

Je vois un petit ruisseau. I 
see a little brook. 

C’est un vieux domestique. It 
is an old servant. 

Il est mon meilleur ami. 
is my best friend. 


He 


THe ADJECTIVE AFTER: 
Voila un homme _ vertueux. 


There you have a virtuous 
man. 

Une odeur douce. 
odor. 

Une main puissante. A power- | 
ful hand. 


A sweet 


C’ était une place fameuse. That 
was a famous place. 


C’est un homme malheureux. 
He is an unhappy man. 


J’ai acheté une table ronde. I 
have bought a.round table. 

Du drap bleu. Blue cloth. 

Je connais un marchand anglais. 
I know an English merchant. 

J’étudie la langue francaise. 1 
study the French language. 

C'est un domestique agé. It is 
an aged servant. 

C’est une nation chrétienne. It 
is a Christian nation. 


Note 1.— Rule a. is often contravened by the requirements of euphony, 
long adjectives being preferably placed after short nouns, or short before 
The educated taste alone can decide in each case. 


221, 222.) ADJECTIVES. 139 


Notre 2.—In the speaker’s mind, an adjective used in address or 
exclamation (mon honoré confrére! Quel charmant enfant!) attributes to 
its noun a quality which naturally belongs to it. Hence such adjectives 
usually precede their noun. 

Nort 3.—If the adjective is determined by other words than the, 
monosyllabic adverbs bien, fort, plus (or le plus: ie. the comparat. and 
superlat. signs), trés, trop, or si, they always follow the noun.— Compare: 


Ce tres savant homme. This very Cet homme vraiment bon. This truly 


learned man. good man. 

Le plus beau livre que j’aie vu. The Ce sont des personnes dignes de foi. 
finest book I have seen. They are trustworthy persons. 

Un si bon gargon, or Un gargon si_ Une trés jeune fille, or une fille tras 
bon. So good a boy. jeune. A very young girl. 


[222.] Adjectives that can be used in a literal as well as 
metaphorical sense, generally precede the noun in the latter, 
because in the speaker’s mind it attributes to that noun a 
quality naturally characteristic of it. Thus: 

BEFORE: AFTER: 
Un noir chagrin. Adark grief. Un habit noir. A black coat. 
Un aveugle amour. A blind Un homme aveugle. A blind 


love. man. 
Une 6troite amitié. A close Un chemin étrost. A narrow 
friendship. road. 


In virtue, chiefly, of this principle —disturbed in part — 
many adjectives have a more or less varied sense, according 
as they precede or follow their noun. Among those whose 
difference of meaning is not self-evident, the following may 
be mentioned here: 


BEFORE: AFTER: 
ancien - former old (cf. note) 
brave honest (cf. note) brave 
certain certain (indefinite) sure 
cher beloved expensive 
dernier last (cf. note) just past 
different \ various unlike 
divers 


140 SYNTAX. [222, 223. 


BEFORE : AFTER: 
franc bold, thorough free, frank 
galant (homme) gentleman ladies’ man 
grand great, grand great (physically), tall 
grosse (femme) stout pregnant 
honnéte honest polished 
malhonnéte - dishonest rude 
méchant worthless spiteful (cf. note) 
nouveau 1 new, another (cf. note) new-fashioned 
pauvre pitiable needy, poor (cf. note) 
petit small mean 
plaisant silly, odd humorous (cf. note) 
propre own (cf. note) clean, peculiar 
pur mere unsullied (cf. note) 
simple mere simple 


Nore. — Even some of these adjectives may in one of their meanings be 
placed before or after the noun according as they attribute to it a quality 
which by general understanding belongs to it or not: e.g. un brave guerriér 
‘a brave warrior’; ayez pitié de ces pauvres femmes ‘have pity on these 
poor (= indigent) women.’ 


223. Two or more adjectives qualifying one noun are 
arranged according to the preceding rules. It is to be ob- 
served only that such as may be connected by et follow the 
noun, if any one of them should have that position; and that 
of three adjectives rarely more than one precedes. — Ex. 


Une jolie petite fille. A pretty little girl. 

Un grand général anglais. A great English general. 

Une grande et belle maison. _A large (and) beautiful house. 

Une action belle et courageuse. A fine, courageous action. 

Une grande maison antique A grand, old and dilapidated 
et délabrée. house. 





Exercise VIII. 


———_— 





1 Un nouvel habit ‘another coat’; un habit nouveau ‘a new-fashioned 
coat’; un habit neuf ‘a coat fresh from the tailor,’ 





224-227.) ADJECTIVES. 141 


CoMPARISON. 
224. THE Positive. — ‘As (so)... as’ is in French 
rendered by auss/ (in negative clauses usually s/) . . . gue, 


but ‘as’ alone, preceded by no other comparative particle, by 
comme. — Ex. 


Ii est aussi riche gue moi. He is as rich as I. 
Ii nest pas si (aussi) riche He is not so rich as I. 
gue moi. 


Il est riche comme un Crésus. He is rich as a Croesus. 


225. THE COMPARATIVE. — The English ‘than’ is rendered 
by gue whenever there is a real comparison (but by de before 
numerals when only a greater or smaller number is to be 
denoted). — Ex. 


Elle est plus belle que sa seur. She is prettier than her sister. 
Un glouton mange plus gue A glutton eats more than three 


trois hommes. men. 

Ii a mangé plus de trois He has eaten more than three 
pommes. apples. 
[226.] The English ‘the more (or less) . . . the more (or less)’ is in 


French rendered by p/us (moins) . . . plus (moins) placed at the head of 
each correlated proposition, while the adjective fo//ows the verb. Some- 
times the concluding proposition is introduced by et plus (moins), especially 
if the prior proposition contains more than one clause. — Ex. 


Plus on est content, plus on est ‘The more contented one is, the hap- 


heureux. pier one is. 

Plus V’écriture est noire, plus elle est The blacker the writing, the more 
lisible. legible it is. 

Moins tu es diligent, moins tu The less diligent you are, the less 
sauras, you will know. 

‘lus on s’éléve, plus VUhorizon The higher we rise, the more our 
s'agrandit, et plus on s’apergoit horizon widens, the more do we 
de son néant. perceive our insignificance. 


[227.] For the expletive use of ne in the second proposition of a com- 
parative sentence, cf. negations, 


142 SYNTAX. [228-230. 


[228.] Davantage ‘more’ is used, optionally instead of plus, at the end 
of a sentence, or before a noun which it does not directly determine. 
After le, beaucoup, peu, or on ne peut, however, p/us must always be used. 
— Ex. 

Cela me plait bien davantage That pleases me very much more, 

(or bien plus). 

Cela me plait beaucoup plus (but That pleases me much more. 

not davantage). 

Il est content de l’encre, mais il Pest He is satisfied with the ink, but he is 
bien davantage (or plus) du papier. much more so with the paper. 


229. THE SUPERLATIVE, — If several superlatives qualify 
one noun they are repeated with article or possessive (as the 
case may be) when placed before their noun, but with the 


article alone when they follow it. — Ex. 

Il est le plus cher et le plus He is the dearest and most faith- 
fidele ami que je possede. ful friend I have. 

Il est mon plus cher et mon He is my dearest and most 
plus fidéle ami. faithful friend. 

C’est Vhomme /e plus actif et He is the most active and cour- 
le plus courageux du monde. ageous man in the world. 

C’est mon serviteur le plus He is my most faithful and 
fidéle et le plus actif. active servant. 
Nore 1.— After the expression ce gui (que) . . . de, the superlative 


has no definite article. — Ex. Ce que j’ai vu de plus beau, c’est ce paysage 
‘The finest thing I have seen is this landscape.” 

Norge 2.— The absolute superlative js in French for the most part 
expressed by an adverb (trés, fort, bien, etc.), instead of /e plus etc. (but 
ef. 280). — Ex. Un fort (tres) beau pays ‘ A most beautiful country.’ 


[230.] When predicate superlatives qualify a noun compared with 
itself, Je plus and le moins are in French adverbs, and as such invariable. 
Compare: a. Superlative of comparison, Cette montagne est /a plus haute 
‘This mountain is the highest’ (of the mountains with which it is com- 
pared).—b. Superlative absolute, C’est ici que /a montagne est fe plus haute 
‘It is here the mountain is highest’ [i.e. ‘high in the utmost degree’: cf. 
C'est ici que la ville est le mieux fortifiée ‘It is here the city is best (adv. = 
at the best) fortified ’]. 





231-234. ] NUMERALS. | 143 


231. ADJECTIvEs USED AS Nouns. — As in English, adjectives are often 
used as nouns to designate persons or things. They are then always 
accompanied by the definite article or some other determinant. — Ex. 


Maint ignorant se croit un génie. Many an ignorant person thinks he 
is a genius. ; 
Les riches doivent aider les pauvres' The rich should aid the poor and the 
et les malheureux. unfortunate. 
Préférez futile a Pagréable. Prefer the useful to the agreeable. 
La vieille se leva. The old woman rose. 


Nore. -— As neuter nouns are used (instead of adjectives) the adverbs 
le moins and /e plus, and also mieux and pis, interchangeably with meilleur 
and pire. — Ex. C'est le moins que vous puissiez faire ‘ That is the least you 
can do.’ J/ n’y a rien de mieux que cela ‘ There is nothing better than that.’ 
Quand on n’a rien @ dire, le mieux est de se taire ‘ When one has nothing to 
say, the best thing is to be silent.’ 


Exercise IX, 


—_—_—_@—_——_— 


XIV. 
NUMERALS. 


[232. HISTORY.—In the ancient language et was generally used to 
combine added parts of a complex numerical expression: e.g. /’an trois 
cents et vingt et neuf. The use of cardinals instead of ordinals (90) is a 
solecism, gradually introduced into the language since the 17th century 
by popular usage, brevity of form being the obvious motive. Compare 
English expressions like ‘ March 10’ for ‘ March 10th,’ etc. ] 


233. The use of cardinals instead of ordinals (from ‘two’ 
inclusive) to designate the day of the month, after names of 
sovereigns, and (optionally) in quoting chapters, etc., has been 
already noticed under 90. 


234. Fractions of a year are usually designated by naming the number 
of months they contain. Thus: Siz mois ‘half a year.” Un an et trois 
mois ‘ A year and a quarter.’ 


144 SYNTAX. [285-238. 


235. ‘A fortnight’ is generally expressed by quinze jours ‘fifteen 
days’ (as ‘a week’ by huit jours), because the day before the first full day 
is included, 


236. The time of day is expressed as the following examples 
will illustrate : 

deux heures ‘two o'clock,’ deuw heures et quart (or et un quart, 
or un quart) ‘a quarter past two,’ deux heures et demie (fem., 
agreeing with hewre) ‘half past two,’ deux heures et trois quarts 
or trois heures moins un quart ‘a quarter to three,’ deux heures 
et vingt minutes ‘twenty minutes past two,’ trois hewres moins 
douze minutes ‘twelve minutes before three.’ But midi ‘twelve, 
noon’ and minwit ‘ midnight.’ 

Observe also vers les deux heures ‘towards two o’clock,’ and, by analogy, 
vers les unes heure (better vers une heure) ‘ towards one o’clock.’ 

237. Observe also the following idioms: Quel jour du mois 
(or Quel quantiéme) avons-nous (or sommes-nous, or est-ce) 
aujour’hui ? ‘What day of the month is it (to-day)?’ Nous 
avons (or nous sommes, or il est) le treize ‘It is the 13th.’ 
Quelle hewre est-il? ‘What time (o’clock) is it?’ Quel dge 
avez-vous ? ‘How old are you?’ J’ai douze ans (douze ans et 
demi) ‘I am twelve years (twelve years and a half) old’ 


Nore. — ‘One’ in such expressions as ‘an other one,’ ‘that one,’ ‘a good 
one’ is not rendered in French. The indef. pronoun ‘one’ is on (112). 


EXERCISE X, 


ap 


XV. 
PRONOUNS. 


[238. HISTORY. — Various rules for the use and construction 
of the pronouns observed now had not yet been formulated in the 16th 
and 17th centuries. Thus we find in the classical literature such peculiar- 
ities as the following: 


238-240.] PRONOUNS. 145 


The personal subject and object-pronoun were often omitted as in 
Latin (e.g. Et tirant le bracelet, lui jeta, for il Je lui jeta: Amyot), a usage 
still surviving in the popular idiom (e.g. Faut pas faire cela, for I/ ne faut 
pas etc.).— With a second affirmative imperative, me and tu, placed 
before the verb, were used instead of a suffixed -moi, -toi, even 
in the 18th century (e.g. Quittez cette chimére et m’aimez: Corneille. Sol- 
dats, suivez leurs pas et me r€pondez d’eux: Voltaire). — The subject-noun of 
an interrogative clause was not represented by a pronoun put after the 
verb (e.g. A quel propos le soleil chasse la nuit? for chasse-t-il la nuit ? Mal- 
herbe).—£n and y were freely used for persons, and soc was used where 
now Ju? is required (e.g. I[doménée, revenant a soi, for a e/le: Malherbe). — 
A personal pronoun referring to an adjective was made to agree with it in 
gender (vous étes satisfuite, et je ne la suis pas: Corneille). — The interrog- 
ative gui, and the relative gui after prepositions, could be used with 
reference to things, contrary to 272, 276, b (e.g. Qui fait Poiseau? c’est le 
plumage: La Fontaine; Un prix @ qui tout céde: Racine).— Méme was 
placed indifferently before or after its noun (e.g. Sais-tu que ce vieillard fut 
la méme vertu ?).— And so on.] 


239. Though the pronouns —as indicated by the name — 
generally represent nouns, they sometimes refer to adjectives, 
verbs, or whole sentences. — Ex. Elle est belle, je ne le suis pas 
‘She is pretty, I am (it) not.” Jl ne travaille pas comme il le 
faisait autrefois ‘He does not work as he was wont.’ II est 
riche, je ne le savais pas ‘ He is rich, I did not know it.’ Cest 
étonnant ‘That is astonishing.’ 


ii in impersonal verbs is expletive. 


PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 


(Review carefully 100-5.) 


240. Use oF CONJUNCTIVE OR DISJUNCTIVE PERSONAL 
PRONOUNS. — It has been already noticed that, owing to a 


difference of accent-stress, the personal pronouns have a differ- 
ent form, according as they are conjunctive (proclitic), or dis- 
junctive (independent). 


146 SYNTAX, (241, 242. © 


[241.] The conjunctive form is used: 
a. Ordinarily when the pronoun is in immediate connection 
with the verb (for exceptions cf. 242, a): e.g. je parle ; parle-t-il? 
b. When it is separated from the verb only by another con- 
junctive pronoun or ne; e.g. on me le dira, il ne parle pas; il 
ne le dit pas. 


[242.] The disjunctive form is used: 

a. In immediate connection with the verb only when the 
pronoun is in predicate referring to a person (e.g. c’est mos) ; 
when it is in apposition (e.g. je parle, moi ‘ I speak’); when it 
is connected with a preceding word by a conjunction as et, ou, 
etc. (e.g. elle et lui sont ici); and moi, toi (instead of me, te) 
with an affirmative imperative, except before en, y (e.g. écoutez- 
moi; dis-moi; donnez-m’en). 

b. When the pronoun is separated from the verb by any 
other word than a conjunctive pronoun or ne (e.g. je pense a 
toi; lui et son frére sont ici) ; and when the verb is understood 
(e.g. Qui parle ? Moi; etc.). 

Compare (241-242) : 
CoNJUNCTIVE : a. DISJUNCTIVE : 
I/ est venu. He has come. C'est lui. It is he. Ce sont 
eux. It is they. 

Est-i] venu? Has he come? TJile fera, lu’. He will do it. 
On me voit, mais on ne la Elle et lui sont partis. He and 
voit pas. They see me, but she have departed (gone). 

they do not see her. 


Aimez-le. Love him. Aimez-moi. Love me. 
Dites-le-moi. Tellit tome. Dites-le-mo/. Tell it to me. 
b. 
I] ne viendra pas. He will Lui et son frére viendront. He 
not come. and his brother will come. 
Je la vois. I see her. Moi et lui, nous la voyons. I 


and he see her. 





242, 243.) PRONOUNS. 147 


Je le lui donnerai. I shall Je le donnerat a lui et a elle. I 
give it to him. shall give it to him and to her. 
Il ne te la montrera pas. He On parle de nous. On court a 
will not show her (it) to eux (& elles). They speak 


you. ofus. They runtothem.  . 
Je lui en parlerai. I shall Eux seuls seront exempts. They 
speak to him about it. alone will be exempt. | 
Qui vient ? Lui. Who is coming? 
He. 


Nore.— When a subject-pronoun is emphasized, it is often repeated in 
its disjunctive form, as an appositive, before or after the verb. — Ex. Mo/ 
je le ferai or Je le ferai, moi ‘I shall do it.’ 

Sometimes, as in antithetical clauses, etc., the disjunctive form of the 
3d person is used alone, by way of emphasis, instead of the conjunctive. — 
Ex. Vous pensez ainsi, mais lui pense autrement ‘ You think so, but he thinks 
differently.’ Lui n’y était pas ‘ He was not there.’ 


[243.] THE DATIVE (‘to’-) RELATION.— The dative rela- 
tion is expressed by the conjunctive form (me, te, etc.), or by 
& with the disjunctive form (@ moi, a toi, etc.). French and 
English, though most often accordant in the use of the simple 
or the prepositional form, frequently differ (cf. Iwi dire ‘tell 
him’; cowrir & lwi ‘hasten to him’: but lui parler ‘speak to 
him’; lui appartenir ‘belong to him’). 

The general principle (modified in special cases by settled 
usage) is in French # use the prepositional form only when 
the prepositional value of to, as expressing a direction, is yet 
felt (e.g. cowrir a ‘hasten to’), or when the dative-pronoun is 
emphasized (e.g. je le donne lui, pas @ elle ‘1 give it to him 
not to hér;’ but je le lui donne ‘I give it to him,’ no distinction 
being involved). 

Hence the following special rules: 


The prepositional dative-form is used: 
a. After verbs of motion and a few others (as penser, songer ; accoutumer, 


148 


SYNTAX. 


(243. 


renoncer, etc.): e.g. Il courut a moi ‘He hastened to me.’ Jl pense (songe) 


a elle ‘He thinks (dreams) of her.’ 


Note 1.— Here belong also some phrases like avoir recours, faire atten- 
tion, etc., in which the verb and its complement blend into one idea: e.g. 
Il a recours a moi ‘ He has recourse to me.’ — Notice also the idiom étre a 


‘belong to.’ 


Nore 2.— Venir when not strictly a verb of motion takes the conjunc- 
tive form: e.g. Zl me vient une idée ‘ An idea occurs to me.’ 

b. In all cases of emphatic distinction (even when only implied): e.g. 
Joffre ce livre a elle (pas @ lui) ‘T offer this book to her, not to him’; but 
Je lui offre ce livre I offer him (her) this book.’ 

c. When the direct object is me, te, se, nous, or vous, whether used re- 
flexively or not: e.g. Je vous présente a elle ‘I introduce you to her’ (but 
Je le lui présente ‘I introduce him to her’). Je me fie a elle ‘I rely on her.’ 

d. As a matter of course (242, a) when two datives connected by a 
conjunction occur: e.g. Je parle a lui et a elle ‘I speak to him and to her.’ 


Compare : 


ConsunctT. DaTIVE: 

Il lui envoie les livres. He 
sends him (her) the books. 

Je vous le donnerai. I shall 
give it to you. 

Je lui parle. I speak to him 
(her). 

Je leur offre un livre. I offer 
them a book. 

Ce livre lui appartient. 
book belongs to him. 

On lui dit quelle viendra. 
They tell her (him) she is 
coming. 

Sa fortune lui venait de son 
pere. He (she) got his 
(her) fortune from his (her) 
father. 


This 


Dissunct. DATIVE: 


Il court droit @ lui (delle). He 
hastens straight to him (her). 


J’aurat recours @ vous. I shall 
have recourse to you. 
Je pense a lui (a elle). I think 


of him (her). 
Je songe a@ eux (a elles). I 
think of them. 

Ce livréfst & Jui (a, note 1). 
This book belongs to him. 
On fait attention a elle (d lui). 

They notice her (him). 


Ii vint droit a lui (a elle). He 
came straight to him (to 
her). 


e 


243, 244.) 


Il me donne de Vargent. He 
gives me money. 

Il m’obéit. He obeys me. 

Je vous la présenterai. I shall 
introduce her to you. 

Il le lui a recommandé. He 
has recommended him to 
him (her). 

Je le lui présentai. 
duced him to her. 

Je leur offrirai ce livre. I 


shall present them with 
this book. 


I intro- 


PRONOUNS. 


149 


Il donne de Vargent a moi (pas 
a& toi). He gives money to 
me (not to you). 

Il obéit & mor et & vous. He 
obeys me and you. | 
Je me présenterai dvous. I shall 

introduce myself to you. 

Ii nous a recommandé a lui. He 
has recommended us to him. 


Il se présenta a elle. He intro- 
duced himself to her. 

Ce livre sera offert a eux (pas a 
elle). ‘This book will be pre- 
sented to them and not to her. 


244. THE USE OF en, y, ETC.—In applying above rules 
for the use of the personal pronouns, it must be remembered 
that the indirect cases of the 3d persons are often, especially 
when referring to things, supplanted by one of the particles 
en and y (101), or by an adverb. The rules are as follows: 

a. The conjunctives Jui and leur are preferably used for per- 
sons (or personified things), often also for animals and plants. 
In other relations they are regularly replaced by y: e.g. J’ai 
le livre, la feuille y appartient ‘I have the book, the leaf 
belongs to it.’ 

b. The disjunctives with de or @ can refer only to persons 
(or personified things), being replaced in other relations by 
en (= de lui etc.) and y (= 4 lui etc.). Where no ambiguity 
would arise, en and more rarely y may be used also for persons, 
especially plurals of an indeterminate sense, or to avoid repe- 
tition. — Ex. Voila des plumes, prenez-en ‘There are pens, take 
some (lit. take of them).’ J’ai votre parole, je m’y fie ‘I have 
your word, I rely on it.’ Combien avez-vous de fréres? J’en 
ai trois ‘ How many brothers have you? I have three.’ 


150 SYNTAX. [244 


c. The disjunctives with other prepositions than de and 4, 
though allowed to refer to any noun, are preferably used only 
for persons (or personified things), being replaced in other 
relations by some adverb [sous or sur lui by (/a-)dessous or 
(la-) dessus ; apres lui by derriére, and so on], or by a repeti- 
tion of the noun referred to, or by some other device: e.g. 
Voila la table, mets le livre la-dessus ‘'There is the table, put 
the book on it.’ 

Compare : 


REFERRING TO PERSONS: a. REFERRING TO THINGS: 


Il a écrit, et je lui réponds. J'ai regu sa lettre, et fy réponds. 


He has written, and I 
answer him. 

Voila les enfants, donnez-leur 
vos soins. There are the 
children, give them your 
care. 

Les filles ont soif, donnez-/eur 
de Veau. The girls are 
thirsty, give them water. 


Cet homme ne vaut rien, ne 
parlez pas de lui. This 
man is good for nothing, 
do not speak of him. 

Il parle de sa mére, et il pense 
toujours a elle (rarely et il y 
pense toujours). He speaks 
of his mother, and he al- 
ways thinks of her. 

Laissez aller les garcons, j’at 
besoin d’eux. Let the boys 
go, I need them. 


I have received his letter, 
and I answer it. 


Voila les documents, donnez-y - 


votre attention (or examinez- 
les). There are the documents, 
give them your attention. 


Les plantes sont séches, donnez- 


leur (or donnez-y) de Veau. 
The plants are dry, give them 
water (also, arrosez-les). 


Ce cheval ne vaut rien, n’en 


parlez pas. This horse is 
worthless, do not speak of 
it. 


Il parle de sa maison, et il y 


pense toujours. He speaks 
of his house, and he is always 
thinking of it. 


Laissez les livres, j’en ai besoin. 


Leave 
them. 


the books, I need 





244-947.) 


Il aime les enfants, et il en est 
aimé (or il est aimé d’eux). 
He loves children (or the 
children), and he is loved 


PRONOUNS. 


151 


Il aime les tableaux, et il en 
. achéte toujours. 


He loves 
pictures, and he always buys 
some (lit. of them). 


by them. 

Plus on connait son monde, 
plus on sy entend. The 
better we know people, the 
better we understand how 
to treat them. 


C’est sa parole, et je m’y fie. 
It is his word, and I rely on 
it. 


c 

Il tomba, et je tombai sous /ui. 
He fell, and I fell under 
him. 

O’est mon ami, et c’est avec 
lui que je suis venu. It is 
my friend, and it is with 
him I have come. 


La table tomba, et je tombai des- 
sous. The table fell, and I 
‘fell under it. 
J’ai un canif, et Vest avec ce 
canif (avec lui) que je Vai 
coupé. I have a_ penknife, 
and it is with this penknife 
I have cut it. 


Further remarks about the use of the personal pronouns: 


245. Je is used for moi in the old-style expression Je soussigné (sous- 
signée) . . . ‘I, the undersigned.’ 


246. Nous is often used for je in official documents, and by authors 
speaking of themselves. The verb is then, as after vous when referring to 
one person, put in the plural, but modifying words in the singular. — Ex. 
Nous soussigné(e) . .., nous avons ordonné et ordonnons 
content (e) 


. . » Nous sommes 


247. Tu (toi) and vous. — A stranger or an acquaintance is 
addressed by vous in French, as by ‘you’ in English. Tw is 
used in addressing an intimate friend or near relation; and - 
also often, especially by Protestants and in poetry or exalted 
prose, in addressing the Almighty. 


152 SYNTAX. (248-250. 


[248.] Zu is sometimes used to express superiority, contempt, or 
anger. Observe the verb tutoyer equivalent to the old English ‘to thou,’ 
i.e. to call a person thou, whether in familiarity or contempt. 


[249.] Vous always requires the verb to be in the plural. 
But the number as well as the gender of its modifiers depends 
on its implied number and gender. — Ex. Vous étes bon (or 
bonne ; — bons or bonnes) ‘ You are good.’ 


250. THE 3D PERSONS (ii, elle, etc.). — For the use of the 
pronouns of the 3d person the following should be observed : 

a. The declinable forms can represent only determinate 
nouns (or adjectives used as nouns), with which they agree 
in gender and number: e.g. Voyez-vous le garcon (la fille, les 
arbres)? Oui, je le (la, les) vois ? 

Nore. — A construction peculiar to French is the use of the 
object-forms le, Ja, les as conjunctive predicates after étre to 
represent definite nouns: e.g. Etes-vous sa mere? Je la suis 
‘Are you his mother? I am (lit. her = his mother, that per- 
son).’ If, however, the noun is referred to rather as connoting 
a certain quality or condition than as naming a definite person 
or thing, the invariable /e is used: e.g. Etes-vous mere? Je le 
suis ‘Are you a mother? I am (/it. it = a mother).’ 

b. The invariable /e, often equivalent to English ‘so’ or 
an expletive ‘it,’ represents adjectives (or nouns: note above), 
participles, verb-phrases (like rendre grdces etc.), and sen- 
tences: e.g. Hille est bonne, il lest aussi ‘She is good, he also 
(is good).’ Jl viendra, s’il me fe dit ‘He will come, if he tells 
me so.’ 


c. En, y are to be rendered in various ways according to the context, 
and, owing to their frequent expletive use to connect two thoughts, they 
are often to be left untranslated (the reference being also at times dimmed 
and unclear): e.g. en avoir ‘have some’; sy jfier ‘depend on it’; s’en 
aller (149) ‘go off’; en étre ‘be at a point,’ ‘be reduced (to)’; en vouloir a 
‘have a grudge against’; y étre ‘comprehend’; i y va de ‘it concerns’; etc. 


250. 


PRONOUNS. 


153 


Compare : 


(le, la, les) : 
Connaissez-vous cette fille? Je 
la connais. Do you know 
this girl? I know her. 
Etes-vous la reine de ce 
peuple? Je la suis. Are 
you the queen of this peo- 
ple? Lam. 


Sont-ce la vos livres? Oui, ce 
les sont. Are those your 
books? Yes, they are. 

Je vous donne la plume, quoi- 
que vous ne me la demandiez 
pas. I give you the pen, 
although you do not ask 
me for it. 

Lenfant m’a demandeé les (ses, 
ces) livres, et je les lui ai 
donnés. The child has 
asked me for the (his, 
these) books, and I have 
given them to him. 

Quand vous aurez des nouvel- 
les, faites-les-moi savoir. 
When you shall have news, 
let me know them. 

Il a trouvé une femme comme 
il fa (referring to femme) 
désirait. He found a wo- 
man of the kind he desired. 


(/e invar., en) : 
Est-elle bonne? Elle Pest (V for 
le). Is she good? She is. 


Etes-vous reine? Oui, je le 
suis? Are you a queen? 
Yes,.I am (ie. I have the 
qualities implied by the word 
queen). 

Sont-ils malades? Oui, ils le 
sont. Are they sick? . Yes, 
they are (so). 

Je vous donne la plume, quoique 
vous ne le demandiez pas. I 
give you the pen, although 
you do not ask me to do so. 


Lenfant m’a demandé des livres, 
et je lui en ai donné. The 
child has asked me for books, 
and I have given some to 
him. 


Ii est plus fort que je ne le suis. 
He is stronger than I am. 


Il a trouvé une femme comme il 
/e (referring to the preceding 
clause) désirait. He has found 
a woman, as he desired (to do), 


Norz.— As seen above, the objective form of the 3d person is in 
French expressed, whether the English equivalents (‘it,’ ‘so,’ etc.) are 


used or not. 


154 SYNTAX. (251, 252. 


[251.] // as impersonal subject occurs: —a. As in English, ~ 
with impersonal verbs (il tonne etc.).—b. By way of antici- 
pation (as in English the expletive ‘there, it’), to allow the 
logical subject to follow the verb (e.g. Il me vient une idée 
‘There occurs to me an idea.’ Jl se peut qwil vienne ‘It is 
possible that he may come.’ Jl y aura un bal ‘There will be a 
ball).? —c. With étre cf. 252. 


252. // OR ce WITH 6tre.—/J// ‘it’ and ce ‘that, it’ are 
both used impersonally with étre. Both may then refer to a 
following subject or subject-clause, though ce only when 
separated from it by a predicate noun (modified or not), 
or pronoun [e.g. // est bon d’étudier ‘It is good to study.’ 
C’est Vhomme qui parle ‘It is the man who speaks.’ C’est 
lui qui parle ‘It is he who speaks’].— Only ce can refer 
to a preceding subject(-clause), expressed or understood 
[e.g. Elle le fait, e’est bon. Crest bon ‘that is good,’ viz. 
something already spoken of or had in mind]. 


Compare : 
il: cez 

Il est bon de savoir setaire. Il satt se taire, e’est bon. He 
It is good to be able to be knows how to be silent, that 
silent. is good. 

I/ sera agréable de passer Crest magnifique, mais ce n'est 
les vacanes ici. It will pas la guerre. It is magnifi- 
be pleasant to spend our cent, but is not war (viz. some- 


holidays here. thing already referred to). 
/!1 est Wimportance de bien Crest une affaire importante. It 
parler. Itis of importance is an important business. 


(= important) to speak well. 

{/ est dun bon pere de bien Crest mon bon pere quia élevé 
élever ses enfants. It ces enfants. Itis my good 
belongs to a good father to father who has educated these 
bring up his children well. children. 





252, 253.) PRONOUNS. 155 


Il est & désirer qu’ilvienne. Cest un pesant fardeau (que) 
It is desirable that he davoirungrand mérite. 
should come. It is a heavy burden to have 
a great distinction. 

I/ est & propos qu’elle fasse Crest elle qui fera cette com- 
cette commission. Itis mission. It is she that will 
proper that she should do do this errand. 
this errand. 

Mest huithewres, ilest tard. Il est huit heures, e’est trop 
It is eight o’clock, it is tard. It is eight o’clock; 


late. that (= 8 o’cl.) is too late. 
I/ était temps de partir. It Crest dix heures qui viennent 
was time for departing. de sonner. Itis ten o’clock 


that has just struck. 


Nore 1.— Usage requires // est besoin; e’a été, c’eiit été, sera-ce, fut-ce, 
fit-ce, si ce nest. Parenthetically both i/ est vrai and ¢’est vrai occur (the 
latter being more emphatic). 

Notre 2.—In popular usage c’est occurs freely before adjectives, where 
il should be used; and even in literary style c’est is used before words of 
emotion (heureux, triste, étonnant, etc.): e.g. C'est bien tristede ne voir que 
le ciel et Peau. C’était a craindre que la Californie ne devint pays 
chinois. 


253. THE REFLEXIVES se AND so/. — Se is used reflexively 
as accusative and dative, any gender or number. —So/ is 
rarely used except in the singular and with reference to per- 
sons or things spoken of in an indefinite or general way, lui 
(elle) eux (elles), with or without méme, being usually substi- 
tuted for it when other objects are intended. — Ex. 


Il se (acc.) frappe. He strikes himself. 

Ii se (dat.) le promet. - He promises it to himself. 

On doit rarement parler de One should rarely speak of 
Sol. himself. 

Chacun pense a sos. Every one thinks of himself. 


Le vice est odieux de sos. Vice is odious in itself, 


156 ' SYNTAX. [253-256. 


Un bienfait porte sa récom- A kindness brings its own re- - 
pense en sol. ward with it. 

Mon frére a de argent sur lui. My brother has money. 

Tes fréres ne font point de Your brothers do not reflect 


réflecions sur eux (-mémes). about themselves. 
Les choses ne sont en elles- Things are neither pure nor 
mémes ni pures ni impures. impure in themselves. 


254. POSITION OF THE CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. — The | 
chief rules for the position of the conjunctive pronouns, where 
it is peculiar to French, have been given already under rule 
102, to which the learner is referred. 

Farther details are given below. 


255. The position of the subject-pronoun is for the most 
part the same as in English; i.e. it precedes he verb (// parle), 
except in the following cases: 

a. In interrogative sentences, unless introduced by est-ce 
que: e.g. Parle-t-i]? or Est-ce qwil parle ? 

b. In interjected phrases like dit-il, and the like, if pre- 
ceded by all or part of the words quoted: e.g. “ Je viendrai,” 
dit-i1. 

ce. After an immediate subjunctive of desire not introduced 
by que: e.g. Puisse-t-i/ venir. 

d. More or less optionally when the sentence is ay 
by certain adverbs or adverbial phrases (cf. 416, b): 
Aussi se regardait-il sans pareil. A peine fut-il entré. En ae 
Va-t-il essayé. Peut-étre pourrai-je vous étre utile. 


256. The object-pronoun must not be placed before any 
other verb than the one on which it depends. Hence Je viens 
la demander (not Je lav. d.). occasion est favorable, i faut 
savoir en profiter (not il en faut, nor il faut en s. p.). And 
compare J/ Jui faut parler ‘He must speak’ (lit. ‘It is necessary 
for him to speak’); but J7 faut lui parler ‘Tt is necessary to 
speak to him.’ 


256-258. ] PRONOUNS. 157 


Note 1.— Usually object-pronouns precede the first of two 
successive verbs (the second an infinitive) when it is transi- 
tive (esp’ly faire, laisser, entendre, ouir, voir, sentir): e.g. Je 
le ferai venir ‘I shall make him come.’ Je /es /ui ai laissé voir 
‘T have allowed him (her) to see them.’ If it is an affirmative 
imperative, the pronoun, of course, follows: Faites-/e venir 
‘send for him.’ Only when the second verb is a reflexive, 
each verb is preceded by a pronoun: Je /e vois se lever ‘I see 
him rise.’ 

Note 2.— Forms like je /e viens demander (instead of je viens le d.) are 
very common in the earlier language. 





Exercise XI. 





POSSESSIVES. 
(Review carefully 106.) 


257. The Possessives agree in gender and number with the 
object possessed. 


Il aime son’ fils et sa fille. He loves his son and his daughter. 
Mon fils et le sien, ma fille et My son and _ his* (hers), my 
la sienne. daughter and his (hers). 


Larbre a perdu ses feuilles. The tree has lost its leaves, 


Nore. — That the possessive adjective may be replaced by the definite 
article where no misunderstanding can arise (a8 in Eile a perdu la mémoire; 
Fermez la bouche, etc.) has already been noticed: 182-4. 


258. Use OF /u/ ETC. FOR son ETC.—The possessive ad- 
jective is often replaced by an indirect object-pronoun put before 
the verb, especially in speaking of parts of the body. — Ex. 


Je me suis coupé le doigt. I have cut my finger. 

Il s’est cassé le bras. He has broken his arm. 

L’éclat des grandeurs leur a Thesplendor of the grand things 
tourné la téte. turned their head. 


158 SYNTAX. (259-261. 


259. Use OF en FOR son, leur.—En ‘thereof’ = ‘its, their’ . 
is ordinarily used for son, leur with a direct object (less regu- 
larly also with a subject of étre) with reference to a noun of a 
preceding clause denoting a thing or, rarely, a being. En is 
then placed before the verb, and its noun has the definite 
article (as it would in English if ‘thereof’ were used). 


Compare : 
en. son (leur): 


Quand on est dans un pays, Cette terre est magnifique, j ad- 
il faut en suivre l’usage. mire la fertilité de son sol. © 


When we are in a country, This land is magnificent, I ad- 
we must follow its customs. mire the fertility of its soil. 
J’aime cette fleur (ces fleurs), Vous rappelez-vous cette ville ? 

l’odeur en est tres bonne. Ses promenades sont admir- 

I like this flower, its (their) ables. Do you remember that 

odor is very good. city? Its public walks are 
admirable. 

Charles-Quint passa ses der- Ma vie est rude, et ses aspé- 

niéres années parmi les rités (not subj. of étre) me 

moines, mais sans en em- blessent. My life is hard, and 


brasser la’ vie. Charles V its bitterness wounds me. 
passed his last years among 
the monks, but without em- 
bracing their mode of life.: 


260. After chacun referring to a word in the plural, son and Jeur may 
be used indifferently, though leur is more common with a direct object and 
son after a preposition. — Ex. J/s gagnérent chacun feur place. Ils parlérent 
chacun de son malheur. 


261. The possessive adjectives are repeated (like the defi- 
nite article: 202) before each noun or adjective denoting a 
different object, and always before superlatives (cf. 
229). — Ex, 


a 


261-265.] PRONOUNS. 159 


J’aime mon pére et ma mere. I love my father and (my) 
mother. 
Mes chers et bons parents. My dear good parents. 


262. Mon (ma, mes) is in French commonly used in address, espe- 
cially before names of near relatives: e.g. Bonjour, men pére (mes enfants). 
Oui, mon général. Hence also the words monsieur (mon-sieur), madame 
(ma-d.), mademoiselle (ma-d.), which, unless farther defined, do not take 
the definite article (e.g. Monsieur est sorti. Madame est malade). 


263. Le mien, le tien, etc. are used for ‘mine,’ ‘thine,’ 
etc. But in phrases like ‘is mine,’ meaning ‘ belongs to me,’ 
a mol, @ to/, etc. are commonly used instead. — Ex. Son livre et 
le mien ‘His book and mine.” A qui est ce livre, est-il & vous ? 
Oui, il est & moi ‘Whose is this book, is it yours? Yes, it is 
mine.’ 


Nore 1.— The English phrase ‘a friend of mine’ has no literal render- 


_ing in French; use un de mes amis (or cf. note 2). 


Notre 2.— Mien etc. are exceptionally used in predicate without the 
article (e.g. Ce livre est mien: but usually est @ moi) or as an attribute 
(e.g. in familiar or jocose style Un mien ami. usually un de mes amis, cf. 
note 1), 


DEMONSTRATIVES, 
(Review carefully 107.) 


264. The adjective form ce (cette, ces) is the one generally 
used before a noun, to which -c7 or -J& may be affixed, according 
to 107. — Ex. 


Ce garcon n'est pas diligent. This boy is not diligent. 
Je ne parle pas dece garcon-ci, I donot speak of this boy, but 
mais de cette fille-la. of that girl. 


265. The pronominal form ce, referring impersonally to 
something explained by what follows or already stated, is 
used: —a, With a relative pronoun or the conjunction que 


160 SYNTAX. [265, 266. 


(ce gui, que ‘that which,’ ‘what,’ ce dont ‘that of or about 
which’; ce que ‘the fact that’).—b. With étre in its various 
tenses, unless t/ be required (252). — Ex. 


a 
Co qui est vrai est.beau. * That which (what) is true is 
beautiful. 
Voila ce qui m’étonne. That is what astonishes me. 
Ce que vous dites est vrai. What you say is true. 
C’était bien la ce dont nous That was the very thing about 
étions convenus. which we were agreed. 
Cela vient de ce que vous That comes from your working 
travaillez trop. too much. | 
b 
Crest une affaire importante. It is an important business. 


Ktc., cf. ex. under 252. 


Norr. — About the use of ce sont, etc., for cest, etc., ef. 300. 


[266.] Ce is in French often used with étre when there is 
no pronoun in English, viz. : 

a. When for emphasis the logical subject (then preceded by 
an expletive gue) is placed after étre (cf. 360). — Ex. 


Crest une belle ville gue Paris Paris is a beautiful city. 
(Gallicism, for the less em- : 
phatic Paris est une belle ville). 

C’est une charmante chose A woman is a charming thing. 
qu'une femme. 


b. When the predicate complement precedes and the subject 
follows étre; or simply to repeat a preceding subject. — Ex. 


La premiere qualité Vun mon- The first quality of a monarch 
arque e’est la fermeté. is firmness. 

Ce qui importe & Vhomme e’est What is of consequence to man 
de remplir ses devoirs. is to fulfil his duties, ; 


266-269.] PRONOUNS. 161 


Ce qui Vafflige, e’est que vous What grieves him is your being 
lui en voulez. angry with him. 
Le temps, e’est de Vargent. Time is money. 
Etce., cf. ex. under 252. 
Norr. —In elliptical expressions the expletive que of a. is used even 
when c’est (etc.) is omitted: e.g. Un singulier homme que ce roi ‘A singular 
man, this king!’ 


[267.] Exceptionally, ce is used with sembler (in ce me semble), devoir or 
pouvoir followed by étre, dire, venir, and after a preposition. — Ex. O’est lui, 
ce me semble. Ce doit étre lui. Ce pourrait bien étre lui. Sur ce, je suis votre 
serviteur. 


[268.] Cees and ce/a (or ga) are used with reference to some- 
thing pointed to by the speaker, or to a sentence or idea. In 
a question, with étre, they are divided into -ce ci and -ce 1a. — Ex. 


Ceci est pour vous; cela est This is for you; ‘that is for 


pour moi. me. 
Cela ne me plait pas. That does not please me. 
Cela m’est impossible. That is impossible to me. 
Qui a dit cela ? Who has said that? 
Est-ce la votre opinion ? Is that your opinion ? 
Sont-ce ef vos livres ? Are these your books? 


269. Celui (celle, ceux, celles) ‘that one’ (often = ‘he”’) 
is the dependent pronoun, necessarily determined by an 
immediately following (a) relative clause or (b) preposi- 
tional (especially a possessive) phrase. — Ex. 

a 

Celui qui est content est heureux. He who is content is happy. 

Ceux qui vivront verront. Those who live shall see. 

Celle dont nous pleurons la She whose death we mourn. 
mort. 

Il n’y a pas de vérité plus There is no truth more certain 
sire que celle que tous les than that all men must die. 
hommes doivent mourir, 


162 SYNTAX. [269, 270. 


| ee 
Mon fils et celui de mon frere, My son and my brother’s, my 
ma fille et celle de mon frére. daughter and my brother’s. 
La robe de satin et celle de The satin dress and the velvet 


velours. one. 

Voila vos lettres et celles pour There are your letters and your 
votre sceur. sister’s. 

Je n'ai qu'un seul désir, celui I have only one desire, that of 
détre heureux. being happy. 


Note 1.—If the relative clause is parenthetic in value celui-ci, celui-la 
are used for celui (270) - e.g. Celui-ci, qui cotite peut de chose, est excellent 
‘This one, which costs but a trifle, is excellent.’ 

Nore 2.— Celui is also used, though less frequently (and not elegantly), 
before adjective expressions that could be changed into a relative clause: 
e.g. Ces livres sont meilleurs que ceux donnés a M. A. Cette histoire, ainsi que 
celles purement morales, est bonne & lire. 

Nore 3.—Sometimes celui etc., may be omitted. — Ex. Ces sentiments 
sont (ceux) d’un bon pére. 


270. Celui-ci and ce/ui-la are the independent pronouns, 
being used : —a. to point out distinct objects as near (celui- 
ci) or more remote (celwi-ld); or to refer back to two things 
as ‘the latter’ (celui-ci), ‘the former’ (celui-la);—b. as 
antecedent to a relative which does not immediately 
follow (269. 1). — Ex. 


a : 

Ce sont deux beaux tableaux; Those are two beautiful paint- 

celui-ci est par Raphaél, ings; this one is by Raphael, 
celui-la est par Murillo. that (one is) by Murillo. 


Voulez-vous ceux-ci ou ceux- Will you have these or those? 
la ? 

Le sommeil est dou apres le Sweet is sleep after labor; the 
travail; celui-ci épuise nos latter exhausts our strength, 


forces, celui-/a les répare. the former repairs it. 
b 


Celui-la est heureux qui est He is happy who is content. 
content. 


270-272.] PRONOUNS. 163 


[But Celui qui est content est He who is content is happy. | 
heureux: cf. 269. 





EXERCISE XII. 


INTERROGATIVES. 
(Review 108.) 


271. The adjective gue/ (which may be separated from its 
noun by étre) and the pronoun /egue/ are, as the English in- 
terrogatives, used in both direct and indirect questions. 
Lequel (like Engl. ‘which?’) always limits the question to 
one or certain ones of several objects referred to. — Ex. 


Quel livre avez-vous ? Which (what) book do you have? 
Je ne sais guels livres il a. Tdo not know which bookshe has. 
A quelle heure viendrez-vous? At what hour shall you come? 
Quel est votre avis ? What is your opinion? 


Legue/ de ces tableaux vous Whichof these paintings pleases 


plait le mieux ? you most ? 
Examinons lequel de vos éléves Let us find out who of your 
a fait le plus de progres. pupils has made the greatest 
progress. 
Laguelle de ces flewrs est & Which of these flowers is 
vous ? yours ? 


Lesquels avez-vous choisis? | Which ones have you chosen? 
Duquel de ces gargons parlez- Which of these boys do you 


vous ? speak of ? 
Auxquelles de ces fleuwrs don- Which of these flowers do you 
nez vous lu préférence ? prefer ? 


Notre. — Quel also corresponds to the exclamatory ‘what (a)’: Quel 
beau tableau! ‘What a beautiful picture!’ Quelle bonté! ‘ What goodness!’ 


272. Qui is used in both direct and indirect questions, with 
reference to persons, as subject or object. Instead of qui, the 





164 SYNTAX. (272-274, 


redundant phrase gui est-ce gui (subject) or gui est-ce gue 
(object) is often used, especially when no noun follows the 
verb. — Ex. 
Qui (or Qui est-ce gui) a fait Who has done that? 

cela ? 
Qui cherchez-vous ? (or Qui Whom do you seek? 

est-ce gue vous cherchez ?) 


Qui est ce garcon ? Who is this boy ? 
A qui pensez-vous ? Of whom do you think? 
Je ne sais gui a dit cela. I do not know who has said that. 


273. Que ‘what,’ a conjunctive, is used only in direct 
questions. Instead of que, the redundant phrase gu’est-ce 
qui (subject) or gu’est-ce que (object or predicate) is often 
used, the former regularly when the interrogative (Eng. what?) 
is the subject of other than impersonal verbs. — Ex. 


Que dites-vous? (or Qu’est-ce What do you say? 
gue vous dites ?) 

Qu’est ce ? (or usually Qu’est- What is it (that) ? 
ce gue c'est ?) 

Qu’ est-ce qui vous étonne ? What astonishes you ? 


Nore 1.— In colloquial language, qu’est-ce qui (or que) is often farther 
extended to qu’est-ce que c’est gui (or que with or without verb). — Ex. 
Quw’est-ce que c’est qui vous étonne? What astonishes you? Qu’est-ce que c'est 
qu il veut? What does he wish? Qu’est que c’est que l'avenir? What is the 
future? Qu’est-ce que c’est que cela (or ga)? What is that? 

Nore 2.— In indirect questions ‘ what’ is expressed by ce gu/ or ce que 
(265).— Ex. Je ne sais pas ce qui l’afflige ‘I do not know what pains 
him.’ 

274. Quoi ‘what,’ a disjunctive, is used after prepositions. 


Without preposition it can occur only in exclamation or inter- 
rogation, when the verb is omitted; and after savoir. — Ex. 

A quoi pensez-vous ? What are you thinking of? 

De quoi parlez-vous? What are you speaking of? 
Quoi de plus beau? What more beautiful ? 


274-276.] PRONOUNS. 165 


Il cherche quelque chose. Quoi He is looking for something. 
done ? What is it? 
Il cherche, je ne sais quoi. Heis seeking, I don’t know what. 


275. About quel, gui, or quoi forming indefinites with que cf. 287. 


RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
(Review 109-11.) 


276. Use OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS, — The use of the 
different relative pronouns is subject to the following rules: 

a. Without preposition gu/ and que are always used when no 
ambiguity can arise, i.e. generally with reference to an imme- 
diately preceding noun. Legue/ (laquelle, etc.) simply serves 
to avoid ambiguity by distinguishing gender, or referring to 
the more remote antecedent noun. — Ex. 

L’enfant qui est malade, et gue The child whois sick, and whom 


jai vu. I have seen. 

Les villes qui ont été pillées. The cities that have been plun- 

dered. | 

Elle a un ruban de soie gui She has a silk-ribbon that is 
est bien beau. very pretty. 

La fille du curé laquelle de- The vicar’s daughter, who is 
meure ici pres, est malade. living near by, is ill. 

Le fils du médecin, lequel jai The physician’s son whom I 
vu hier. saw yesterday. 


b. After a preposition gu/ refers to persons, and /egue/ 
usually to things (less often also persons). The preposi- 
tional phrases de qui, duquel, and auquel (dans lequel etc.) are 
often replaced by dont and od (ef. 111, and c. below) — by 
ow less often in ordinary style than in classical writers. — Ex. 
Cest un ami de gui (less It isa friend of whom I speak. 

often duque/) je parle. 

Voila lami dont (or dugue/ There is the friend of whom | 
or de qui) je parle. speak, 


166 


La maison dans laquelle (or 
ou) je demeure. 

Sa mére pour gui (or pour 
Jaqguelle) il travaille, est 
vieille et infirme. 

Les honneurs ow (or, more 
commonly, auxgue/s) vous 
aspirez. 

La douleur ou je suis plongé. 


La maison d’ou il sort. 
But La maison dont il sort. 


SYNTAX. 


fo76 


The house in which (or where) — 
I live. 

His mother for whom he works 
is old and infirm. 


The honors to which you aspire. 


The grief into which I am 
plunged. 

The house from which he comes. 

The house (=family) from 
which he descends. 


c. ‘Whose (of which) ’ is rendered by dont; or, after a 


preposition, by dugue/ (de laquelle etc.). 


The construction 


is in either case what it would be in English if ‘whose’ were 
rendered by ‘of whom (which),’ observing always that dont 
heads the relative clause, and thus, unlike ‘whose,’ is often 


separated from its governing noun. — Ex. 


T?homme dont le frere est 
mort, est ict. 

Je voudrais voir Vhomme dont 
vous vantez tant la probité. 


Je vais trouver Vagent dont 
vous m’ avez donné Padresse. 

Dennui est un mal dont le 
travail est le remeéde. 

Lhomme & Venfant duquel 
vous parlez. 

La femme avec le fils de 
laquelle je suis venu. 

Les lois a la protection des- 
guelles nous confions notre 
bonheur. 


The man whose brother is dead 
is here. 

I should like to see the man 
whose honesty you praise so 
much. 

I am going to find the agent 
whose address you gave me. 
Ennui is an evil whose cure is 

work. 


‘The man to whose child you 


speak. 

The woman with whose son I 
have come. 

The laws to whose protection 
we intrust our happiness. 





277-280. ] PRONOUNS. 167 


[277.] Elliptically gui is used as an indefinite pronoun in the sense of 
“whoever, (any) one who,’ or instead of ce qui, and it is then invariable. 
— Ex. 

Qui ne dit rien consent. He who says nothing consents. 
Qui (or Celui que) jaime, je ’aime Whom I love, I love well. 

bien. 

On ne peut rien exiger de gui n’a Nothing can be exacted from one who 


rien, has nothing. 
Voila qui (or ce qui) marrivera That shall never happen (lit. Behold 
jamais. what shall never happen). 


[278.] Lequel is exceptionally used as a pronominal adjective. — Ex. 
J’ai regu cent dollars, de laquelle somme je vous paierai ma dette. 


279. Quoi is an indefinite relative referring to some such 
antecedent as ce, rien, chose, voild, voici, and is used only with 
a preposition. — Ex. | 


Ilwy a rien sur quoilon ait There is nothing on which more 


plus écrit. | ' has been written. 

Voila de quoi il s’agit. That is what the question is 

about. 

Je peux deviner (ce) a quoi I can guess what he is think- 
il pense. ing of. 

Nous avons de quoi vivre(and We have the means of living 
so on with an infinitive to (We have our means of sub- 
express means or cause). sistence). 


280. The English ‘what’ (= ‘that which’) is in French 
rendered by ce and a relative pronoun (265). — Ex. 


Ce qui est vrai est beau. What is true is beautiful. 

Ce que vous dites est vrai. What you say is true. 

Ce dont je me plains, cest What I complain of is your 
votre inattention. inattention. 


Les biens de la fortune sont The gifts of fortune are what 
ce &@ guoi il faut le moins we must least of all rely 


se fier. upon. 


168 SYNTAX. (281-283. 


281. The Relative pronoun should follow its antecedent as 
nearly as the construction of the sentence permits, and it 
eannot be omitted, as in English. — Ex. 


J’ai sur ma tableunlivre-gui I have a book on my table which 
est Q tot (not J’ai un livre __is thine. | 
sur ma table gui est a tot). . 
Ou est le papier-que jai Where is the paper (which) I 
— acheté ? bought ? 
Voila le livre-dont je parle. There is the book I speak of. 


Exercise XIII. 





INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 


(Review carefully 112. Rules there given, not repeated.) 


282. Que/gue (quelques) ‘some’ is more restrictive than the 
partitive sign (45), and may often be rendered ‘a little, a few.’ 


Avez-vous guelgu’argent ? Avez-vous de l’argent? Have 
Have you (some) a little you any money? 
money ? 

Avez-vous quelques plumes? Avez-vous des plumes? Have 
Have you a few (some) you pens ? 
pens ? 

Quelques hommes et des femmes A few men, and some women 
se montrent sur le mur. show themselves on the wall. 


Nore. — With a word of quantity (especially a numeral) quelque ‘ some, 
about’ is invariable. — Ex. Quelque cinquante ans ‘Some fifty years.’ Quel- 
que peu ‘ Some little.’ 


283. Que/gue . . . (qui or) gue form pronominal phrases 
meaning ‘whatever’ or ‘however.’ If the intervening word 
is a noun or noun-phrase, quelque is an adjective and variable, 
the meaning being then ‘whatever;’ otherwise it is an adverb 
and invariable, the meaning being then ‘however.’ — Ex. 


283-287.] PRONOUNS. 169 


Quelque malheur gui m’at- Whatever misfortune may 
tende.* await me. 

Quelques richesses gu’il possede. Whatever riches he may possess. 

Quelques beaux talents gu’il Whatever fine talents he may 
ait. have. 

Quelgue riches gu’ils soient. However rich they may be. 

Quelque fort qu’on se défende. However stoutly one may resist. 


284. Quelqgue chose ‘something’ is masculine, but chose ‘thing’ is 
feminine (even in quelque chose que ‘whatever’).— Ex. Que/que chose de 
beau ‘Something beautiful. Que/gue chose qu’il ait faite (f.) ‘ Whatever 
he may have done.’ Une belle chose ‘ A beautiful thing.’ 


285. Quelconque ‘ whatever,’ which is used for both persons and things, 
follows the noun it qualifies. With ne it is rarely used in the plural. — 
Ex. Donnez-moi un livre quelconque (des livres quelconques) ‘Give me some 
sort (any kind) of a book.’ JI n’y a raison queleonque qui puisse vous y 
obliger ‘ There is no reason whatever that can oblige you to it.’ 


286. Quiconque ‘whoever’ is rarely used except for persons and in the 
singular.— Ex. Quiconque est riche doit étre bienfaisant ‘Whoever is rich 
ought to be beneficent.’ Quiconque ment sera puni ‘Whoever lies shall be 
punished.’ 


287. The relatives gu/, quel, quoi, ow form with a follow- 
ing que indefinite pronominal phrases. Qui gue ‘whoever,’ 
guel que ‘whatever,’ and guo/ gue ‘whatever’ (with reference 
to no definite object) are then used as predicate complements 
with étre. Ow gue means ‘ wherever.’ — Ex. 


Qui que vous soyez, quelle Whoever you may be, whatever 
que soit votre réputation, et may be your reputation, and 
quoi que vous fassiez. whatever you do. 

Quoi qu’il en soit. Whatever the case may be. 

Ou gue vous soyez, vous étes Wherever you be you are dead 
mort pour mot. for me. 





1 Quelque . . . qui or que, unlike tout . . . que, always requires the sub- 
junctive (330). 


170 SYNTAX. [287-290. 


Norr. — The same phrases are also used with ce soit in the sense of ‘any 
one soever,’ ‘anything whatever,’ and the like. — Ex. J/ n’y avait qui que ce 
soit ‘There was not any one soever (anybody at all).’ J/ ne s’occupe de 
quoi que ce soit ‘He does not busy himself with anything whatever.’ 


288. On (about which cf. 112.3) may apply to a particular person or to 
a distinct body of persons, and a following adjective then agrees in gender 
and number with the noun referred to; but the verb is invariably in the 
singular. — On must be repeated before each verb whose subject it is. ~ Ex. 
A votre age, ma fille, on est curieuse At your age, my daughter, one is 
(f.). inquisitive. 
Ici Pon est égaux, pl. (colloquial). | Here people are equal. 
On est heureux quand on est content. One is happy when he is contented. 


289. Autrui, which can refer only to persons, is rarely 
used except after prepositions (it being supplied, as subject 
and direct object, by un autre, pl. les autres, d’autres ‘others’). 
Ne vous moquez pas d’autrus. Do not make fun of other people. 
D’autres le feront. Others will do that. 


290. Personne, rien, and aucun are the negative correla- 
tives to quelqu’un, quelque chose, and quelque, being used when- 
ever the action of the verb (expressed or understood) is in 
some manner denied, forbidden, or uncertain. — Ex. 


Je ne connais personne. I do not know any one (I know 
no one). 
Rien n’est impossible & Dieu. Nothing is impossible for God. 
Je ne désire aucun de vos I do not wish any of your 
livres. books. 
Je doute que personne vienne. I doubt whether anybody comes. 
Je lui défends de rien dire. I forbid him to say anything. 
Y a-t-il aucun (personne) Is there anybody who believes 


qui le croie ? it ? 
Il est parti sans payer per- He left without paying anybody 
sonne (sans rien payer). (without paying anything). 


Je le sais mieux que personne I know it better than anybody. 
(ne le satt understood). 


290-292.) PRONOUNS. 171 


Qui le sait? Personne. Who knows it? Nobody. 

A quoi pensez-vous? A rien. What are you thinking of? Of 
nothing. 

Je ne veux rien dire. I will say nothing (or I do not 


mean anything). 


Notice that personne, like all the other uninflected pronouns, is masculine 
singular, whiie the noun personne ‘ person’ is feminine. 


291. Nu/.—The adjective is inflected in masculine and 
feminine, but it is rarely used as an indirect object or in the 
plural. The pronoun nui is always masculine singular. 
Although itself negative (Lat. nullus) its verb is by analogy 
construed with ne. — Ex. 


Nul n’est revenu. No one has returned. 
Je n’en ai nulle connaissance. I have no knowledge of it. 


292. Tout (toute; pl. tous, toutes).—a. The adjective tout 
is distributive (sing. ‘every, any,’ pl. ‘all = all kinds of’) 
when accompanied by no article or pronoun. With an article 
or pronoun it is collective (‘the whole, all the’).—b. The 
pronoun tout means ‘everything, all.’ — Ex. 

CONJUNCTIVE : 
Directly preceding : Followed by an article or pronoun: 
Tout homme doit aimer son Toute la maison fut brilée. The 
pays. Every man should whole house was burnt. 

love his country. 

Toute chose a son temps. J’y resterai toute une année. I 


Everything has its time. shall remain there a whole 
year. 
Toutes vérités ne sont pas Tous les hommes sont mortels. 
bonnes a dire. It is not All men are mortal. 


well to tell all truths. 
Tout enfant aime le jeu. Tous mes (ces) enfants aiment 
Every child likes playing. le jeu. All my (these) chil- 
dren like playing. 


172 SYNTAX. [292, 293. 


DISJUNCTIVE : 
Tout dépend de l’ éducation. Everything depends on educa- 
tion. 
Je les connais tous (s= ss). —_ I know them all. 
J’ai tout dit. I have said all. 


Nort 1.— Tout before the name of a city means ‘all.’—Ex. Tout 
Paris en parle ‘ All Paris speaks of it.’ 

Notre 2.— Tout as adverb means ‘wholly, entirely, quite. By an 
anomaly (to preserve the utterance of ¢ as before vowels) it is inflected 
toute (toutes) before a feminine adjective beginning with a consonant (cf. 
tout” étonnée, f.: toute bonne, f.— Ex. 


Elle en fut tout étonnée (or toute She was quite astonished at it. 
surprise). 

Elles sont tout inconsolables (or They are quite disconsolate. 
toutes désolées). 


Il parlait tout fiérement. He spoke quite proudly. 
Elle est tout a son devoir She is wholly devoted to her duty. 
Je suis tout a vous. I am wholly yours. 

Note 3.— Tout . . . que means ‘ however,’ tout being here an adverb, 


treated as above. —Ex. Tout bon qu’il est! (but Toute bonne qu’elle est) 
‘However good he (or she) is.’ Toute femme (used as adj.) qu’elle est 
‘ However much of a woman she is.’ 


293. Te/ ‘such’ takes the indefinite article before it, instead of after, 
as in English, and it does not prevent the use of the partitive de. It may 
mean ‘so-and-so,’ ‘such-and-such,’ being used instead of a word not speci- 





fied; or it may mean ‘many a one,’ and Te/ . . . tel corresponds to ‘one 
. « another’ or ‘as... 80.’ 

Tel est son devoir. Such is his duty. 

Une telle conduite me plait. Such conduct pleases me. 

De tels amis sont rares. Such friends are rare. 

Il me doit telle somme. He owes me such-and-such a sum. 

Monsieur un tel. Mr. such a one. 

Te/ rit aujourd’hui qui pleurera Many a one laughs to-day who will 
demain. cry to-morrow. 
1 Tout . . . que (unlike quelque . . . que. 380) does not generally require 


the subjunctive. 


258, 294.] PRONOUNS. 173 


Tel rit, te/ pleure. One laughs, another cries. 
Tel maitre, tel valet. As the master, so the servant (Like 
master, like man). 


294. Lun autre (requiring se before the verb) ‘each 
other,’ refer to antecedent objects, expressed or understood, 
with which they agree in gender and number. — Ex. 


Ces deux filles s’aiment une These two girls love each 


autre. other. 
Les chrétiens doivent s’aimer Christians should love one 
les uns les autres. another. 


In the same way are used also: /un de (a etc.) /autre ‘of 
(to ete.) each other,’ /’un et lautre ‘both,’ un ou lautre 
‘either the one or the other,’ ni ’un ni l’autre ‘neither the one 
nor the other.’ After ’wn et autre the noun is in the singular, 
but the verb usually in the plural; after ni Pun ni Vautre the 
verb is in the singular or plural according as the predicate is 
applicable to only one or both of the objects referred to. — Ex. 


Ils parlent P’un de l’autre. They speak of one another. 
On se doit des égards les uns We should be considerate 
aux autres. towards one another. 


Lun et Jl autre garcon le Both boys followed him. 
suivaient. 

L’un et l'autre se sont trompés. Both are mistaken. 

Lucréce et Cléopdtye se sont Lucretia and Cleopatra both 
tuées lune et l’autre, mais killed themselves, but they 
elles ne se sont pas tuées did not kill each other. 

Pune lautre. 

L’une ou l’autre le fera. Either the one or the other 

shall (will) do it. 

Ni Pune ni Pautre vest ma Neither is my mother. 
mere. 

Ni Pun ni Pautre ne viendront. Neither will come, 





EXeERcIsE XIV. 





174 SYNTAX. [295-297. 


XVI. 
VERBS. 


[295. HISTORY. —The construction of the verb has been subject to 
some variation in past centuries. Thus, in the 16th and beginning of the 
17th century, the verb was allowed to agree with the last only of two or 
more coordinated subjects (e.g. Leurs maisons et leur ville va étre déserte. 
Bossuet); in the 17th, étre usually agrees with a preceding ce and not with 
its predicate (e.g. C’est eux qui en demeurent d’accord. M™e de Sévigné) ; 
in the 17th and 18th, exceptionally even yet, a verb referring to two nouns 
is put in the plural, even when the second noun is subordinated to the 
first (e.g. Le comte Piper avec quelques officiers étaient sortis du camp. 
Voltaire). —In the 17th century, the conditional is found used after si, 
and a dependent future after a leading future even when not logically 
required (Si d’un sang trop vil ta main serait trempée. Racine). (Je revien- 
drai voir sur le soir en quel état elle sera. Molitre). The distinction of 
mode has undergone many changes (cf. further under the subjunctive: 
319), and the infinitive, originally supplying both the Latin infinitive and 
gerund or gerundive, was once much more freely used than it is now. ] 


AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT. 


296. A verb agrees in number and persoa with its subject, 
or with its subjects collectively (if thus considered). — Ex. 


Mon frere viendra. My brother will come. 

Mes freres viendront. My brothers will come. 

Nous viendrons. We shall come. 

Mon frere et ma sceeur vien- My brother and sister will 
dront. come. 


Notr. — After l'un et Pautre the predicate may be in the 
singular: e.g. L’un et Vautre est bon, or sont bons. 


[297.] AGREEMENT WITH ONE ALONE OF SEVERAL SUB- 
JECTS, — The verb agrees in French —in the main as also in 


297.] VERBS. 175 


English — with one alone of several subjects, a. when its action 
really affects only one of them, or b. when it affects one of them 
more emphatically than the others. Thus, 

a. It agrees with one of several subjects (the nearest), when 
they are connected by ou ‘or’ or nj ‘neither,’ provided the 
verbal action cannot affect all the subjects alike. — Ex. ‘Mon 
frere ou ma seur viendra ‘ My brother or my sister (not both) 
will come. Ni Pun ni Vautre n'est mon pere ‘ Neither is my 
father’ (only one could be). — But Le vice ou la vertu font des 
révolutions ‘Vice or virtue (both) cause revolutions.’ Ni mon 
Frere ni ma seeur ne viendront ‘Neither my brother nor my 
sister will come’ (i.e. both will stay away: hence usually 
plural after nouns combined by nz). 


Notr.— The above principle is not so strictly observed, but that occa- 
sional deviations occur. As a general rule, the singular is preferred after 
ou and the plural after ni. Observe the somewhat different usage in English, 
when the verb is in the singular after ‘ or,’ ‘ either — or,’ ‘ neither — nor,’ 
unless one of the subjects is a plural or a collective noun. 


b. The verb agrees with one only of several subjects (the 
nearest, except when that is of subordinate value): 1. when 
they are placed in gradation (ma parole, mon honneur le 
demande, ‘My word, my honor demands it’); 2. when they are 
synonymous (Mon maitre et protecteur viendra ‘My master 
and protector will come’); 3. when they are connected by a 
particle like comme, ainsi que, aussi bien que, etc. subordinating 
the following noun or nouns under the preceding (Mon frére, 
aussi bien que ma sewr, viendra ‘My brother, as well as my 
sister, will come’). 


Farther Examples to 297: 
a. 
Le vice ou la vertu triomphera. Vice or virtue must triumph. 
D’un ou Vautre éerira. One or the other will write. 


4 


176 


Le bonheur ou la témérité ont 
pu faire des héros. 


Ni lun ni autre ne Vépousera. 


Ni mon pere ni ma mere ne 
viendront. 


Une seule parole, un sourire, 
un regard suffit. 

Son courage, son intrépidité 
nous etonne. 

Le temps, le bien, la vie, tout 
est a la patrie. 

Cette bataille, comme tant 
@autres, ne décida rien. 
La vertu, ainsi que (or de 
méme que) le savoir, a son 

prix. 


SYNTAX, 


[297-299, 


Luck or rashness may have 
made heroes. 

Neither will marry her. 

Neither my father nor my 
mother will come. 


b. 


A single word, a smile, a look 
is sufficient. 

His courage, his intrepidity 
astonishes us. 

Time, property, life, everything 
belongs to one’s country. 

This battle, like so many others, 
decided nothing. | 

Virtue, as well as knowledge, 
has its value. | 


[298.] Should the subjects be of different persons (1st, 2d, 
3d), they are either summed up by one personal pronoun, with 
which the verb then agrees; or the verb is construed as if they 


were. — Ex. 


Ma sceur et moi (nous) vien- 
drons vous voir. 

Vous et lui étes contents. 

Ni toi ni lui, vous n’étes venus. 

Vous ou lui viendrez. 


My sister and I will come to 
see you. 

You and he are satisfied. | 

Neither he nor you came. 

You or he will come. 


[299.] AGREEMENT WITH COLLECTIVES. —a. After a col- 


lective noun in the singular, determined by a plural noun, 
expressed or understood, the verb is treated in French, in the 
main, as in English, being in the singular if the unity of the 
collection is had in view, otherwise in the plural. — Ex. 


299, 800.} VERBS. 177 


The verb in the singular : — 
La foule Wenfants était The crowd of children was 


grande. great. ‘ 

LDarmée des infidéles fut The army of infidels was de- 
détruite. stroyed. 

La moitié des troupes périt One half of the troops perished 
de misére. of want. 

Une nuée de traits obseurcit A cloud of arrows darkened the 
Pair. air. 


The verb in the plural: — 


Une foule Wenfants y A crowd of children were there. 
étaient. 

Un grand nombre de soldats A great number of soldiers per- 
périrent de misére, wn petit ished of want, a small num- 
nombre (de soldats under- __ ber escaped. 


stood) se sauvérent. 
Cette espece de chiens ne ‘This species of dogs live only 
vivent que dix ans. ten years. 


b. Adverbs of Quantity (beaucoup, la plupart, etc.) followed 
by a genitive plural must, as also in English, have a plural 
verb. — Ex. 


Beaucoup Vhommes y sont. Many persons are there. 

La plupart deshommes sont Most men are selfish. 
intéressés. 

La plupart le erosent. Most people believe it. 

Le sénat était partagé, la plu- The senate were (note sing. in 
part étaient en faveur du _ Fr.) divided; a majority were 
projet. in favor of the bill. 


300. After ce as impersonal subject of étre, this verb agrees 
with the following predicate (expressed or understood), if it 
is of the 3d person, — Ex, 


178 SYNTAX. [300-303. 
Ce sont mes enfants. It is my children. 

Ce sont eux. It is they. 

Sont-ce la vos pommes ? Are those your apples ? 


Il faut que ce sofent les ‘They must be mine. 
miennes. 


But :— 
C'est moi; cest nous; cest Itis 1; it is we; it is you. 
vous. 


Notr.— When the predicate is followed by the relative que, c’est is 
preferred to ce sont. —Ex. Est-ce les Anglais que vous aimez? * 


301. After the relative qu: the verb agrees with the immediate 
antecedent of qui.— Ex. 


C’est moi qui Vai dit. It is I who has said it. 

C’est nous qui souffrons. It is we that suffer. 

Vous étes le seul qui le sache. You are the only one that knows it. 

Je crois que je suis le premier qui I believe I am the first that spoke 
ait parlé de cela. of it. 


302. After nous, vous, and on, the verb is construed according to the 
grammatical value of these words, but the predicate noun or adjective 
according to their implied sense. — Ex. 


Vous étes bonne, ma mére. You are good, my mother. 
On se touchait la main, et on était They grasped each others hands and 
amis pour la vie. were friends for life. 


EXERCISE XV. 


Usrt or Mopss AND TENSES. 


303. INDICATIVE.— The indicative mode is not in French 
of so universal use as in English, being often supplied by the 
subjunctive as described farther on (320 etc.). In the use of 
indicative tenses, French and English, though for the most 


| 
5 i atte pt a Alecia 


308, 304.] VERBS. | 179 


part agreeing, also not unfrequently differ. Special rules are 
given below. 


304. THE SIMPLE PRESENT. — This tense is used: 

a. As in English, to express purely present state or action; 
and it represents the indefinite as well as the progressive and 
emphatic forms of the English present (e.g. jaime ‘1 love, am 
loving, do love’). — Ex. 


La superstition cause mille Superstition causes a thousand 
accidents. calamities. 
Il éerit une lettre. He is writing (writes) a letter. 


b. Unlike the present in English, to express present state or 


action continued from the past (cf. Depuis combien de temps 


étes-vous en Amérique? ‘How long have you been in America ?’ 
when the person asked is yet there; but Combien de temps 
avez-vous été en A. ? when he is no longer there). — Ex. 


Il est ici depuis une semaine He has been here for a week. 
(or Jl y a une semaine quil 
est ici). 
Depuis quand Vaimez-vous? How long have you loved her? 
Combien de temps y a-t-il How long has she been in 


quelle est en France ? France ? 
Depuis trente hivers il languit. He has languished these thirty 
years. 


c. To express future state or action after si ‘if’ (not after si ‘whether’: 
ef. 311), as also in English. — Ex. 


S’il vient, je lui parlerai. If he comes, I shall speak to him. 


d. As also often in English, rhetorically, to express past state or action 
as present. — Ex. 


La nuit approche, Vinstant arrive, Night draws nigh, the moment comes. 
César se présente. Cesar presents himself (narratior 
of past events). 


180 SYNTAX. [304, 305. 


e. Exceptionally (as also in English) for a future in main clauses to 
express certainty or immediateness. — Ex. 


Je pars dans une heure. I depart in an hour. 
Je suis de retour dans un moment. I shall be back in a moment. 


305. THE COMPOUND PRESENT (= Perfect).— This tense 
is regularly used: ——a. Where the action of the verb is com- 
pleted within a division of time not yet past (as this hour, 
this day, this year, this century, etc.);—-b. Where the state 
or action of the verb, though completed in a past period, is 
spoken of in a general way, without reference to attending 
circumstances, or with an implied reference to its consequence 
in the present. 

In familiar discourse the compound present is used quite 
freely without any reference to a present past, especially with 
the 1st and 2d persons. 


a. 
Mon frere a écrit aujourd@hui. My brother has written to-day. 
Il est arrivé ce matin. He came this morning. 
Je lui ai parlé (cette semaine), I have spoken to him (this 

et il a promis de venir. week), and he promised to 

come. 
b. 

Dieu a eréé le monde. God created the world. 


Colomb a découvert l Amérique. Columbus discovered America. 

La Grece a été la mére des Greece was the mother of the 
beaux arts. fine arts. 

Je Vai vu ily aun an. I saw him a year ago. 

J’ai recu hier la lettre que I received yesterday the letter 
vous m’ avez écritelasemaine | which you wrote me last 
derniére. week, 


Norr. — Exceptionally the compound present is used for the compound 
future (cf. 804. e). — Ex. Attendez, j’ai fini dans un moment ‘ Wait, I (shall) 
have finished in a moment.’ 


306. ] VERBS. 181 


306. THE SIMPLE and COMPOUND IMPERFECT and 
PRETERIT.— These are both past tenses. The imperfect 
describes a past state or action as unfinished (i.e. as existing, 
continuous, habitual, or going on when something else occurs) 
at the time thought of. ‘The preterit relates a past occurrence 
as complete in itself, and without reference to the condition 
arising from it. 

Imperfect : — 
Il était négociant pendant dix He was a merchant during ten 


ans. 

Des flambeaux éclairaient 
la salle, mais ils étaient 
presque tous placés 0 V extré- 
mité, ou s’élevait lestrade 
des juges. 

Lorsque jétais & Paris, je 
soupais souvent chez M. B. 

Je pensais eile lorsqu’elle 
arriva. 

J’avais déjeuné quand vous 
entrdtes. 

Il était parti quand je suis 
arrive. 


years. 


Torches lighted the hall, but 


they were nearly all placed 
at the other end, where the 
judges’ bench was erected. 


When I was in Paris, I often 


took my supper at Mr. B’s. 


I was thinking of her when she 


arrived. 


I had breakfasted when you 


entered. 


He left when I arrived. 


Preterit : — 


Le roi quitta son vaisseau et 
monta une frégate plus 
légére. 

Louvet descendit dela tribune, 
et Robespierre y monta. 


Des qwil fut entré, on ferma 
la porte. 

A peine me fus-je levé qwil 
entra. 


The king left his vessel and 


went on board of a smaller 
eraft (frigate). 


Louvet descended from the | 


tribune, and Robespierre 
mounted it. 


As soon as he had entered, the 


door was closed. 


Searcely had I risen when he 


entered. 


182 SYNTAX. (306-308. 


Both imperfect and preterit : — 
Nous étions (assis) a table 
lorsqwil arriva. 

Mon ami était bien jeune 
quand i perdit sa mére. 
Le vaisseau qwil monta était 

de cent vingt pieces de canon. 
Les accusés avaient des défen- 


he arrived. 

My friend was very young when 
he lost his mother. 

The vessel which he boablet 
had 120 cannon. 

The accused had been haying 


We were (seated) at table when 


seurs, ils n’en eurent plus. 
On les jugeait individuelle- 
ment, on les jugea en masse. 


counsels; they no longer re- 
ceived any. They had been 
sentenced one by one, they 


(now) were sentenced en 
Masse. 

[807.] The distinction between the imperfect and the preterit is not so 
absolute but that a certain degree of option is allowed. Especially in 
compound tenses, the tendency is in favor of the imperfect form. Thus, 
J’avais déjeuné lorsqwil entra ‘I had had my breakfast (or I had just 
breakfasted) when he entered.’ 

[308.] After s/ ‘if’ (not after si ‘whether’), introducing an 
unreal, unaccomplished condition, the imperfect is regularly 
used in French where the conditional or past would be used 
in English. — Ex. 

If you should deceive (or 
deceived) me, I should be 
very unhappy. 

If I should come (or came), 
would you come ? 

He asked me whether I would 
consent. 


Si vous me trompiez, je de- 
viendrais bien malheureux. 


Si je venais, viendriez-vous ? 


Il m’a demandé si jy con- 
sentirais. 
Nore 1.— Even in main clauses, the imperfect may be used for the 
conditional when in energetic writing attention is called to the certainty 
of the result. — Ex. . 


S’il ne Vavait pas fait, Vautre était If he had not done it, the other would 


mort, be dead. 


308-313.] 3 VERBS. 183 


Note 2.— About the use of the compound imperfect subjunctive, 
instead of the conditional, cf. 338. 

[309.] As the present may express a state or action con- 
tinued from the past (304. b) so the imperfect may also (con- 
trary to English usage) denote a state or action continued from 
a previous time. — Ex. 


Il y était depuis longtemps. He had been there for a long 


time. 


310. THE SIMPLE AND COMPOUND FuTuRE. — These 
tenses correspond to the same tenses in English, observing 
only that French is more strict than English in using the 
future where logically required, especially in temporal clauses. 
— Ex. 


Je partirai demain. I shall depart to-morrow. 

J’aurai fini avant vous. I shall have finished before you. 

Je le verrai aussitdt qwil I shall see him as soon as he 
viendra. , comes. 

Je partirai quand jaurai fini I shall leave when I have fin- 
mes affaires. ished my business. 


Vous direz ce qwil vous plaira. You will say what you please. 


[811.] After si the future is used only in the sense of ‘whether’ (cf. 
304. d).— Ex. Je ne sais s’il viendra ‘I know not whether he will come.’ 
Si vous venez, je vous le dirai ‘If you (will) come, I will tell you it.” Je 
partirat s’il vient ‘I shall be off if he comes.’ 


[312.] About the use of the present for the future to denote immediate 
action, etc., cf. 304. e. 


[318.] The compound future sometimes expresses that an act has prob- 
ably taken place. — Ex. 


Il lui aura tout dit He has probably told him all. 

Il sera parti hier. He must have started yesterday. 

Il se sera égaré, sans cela il serait He has probably lost his way, other- 
acl. wise he would be here. 





1 Cf. German: Er wird ihm alles gesagt haben. 


184 SYNTAX. (314-317. 


314. THE SIMPLE AND COMPOUND CONDITIONAL. —_ 
These tenses correspond to the same tenses in English, except 


(a.) that they cannot be used after si ‘if,’ which requires the 
imperfect (cf. 308); and (b.) that they are more strictly used 
in subordinate clauses where logically required. — Ex. 


Je viendrais si je pouvais. I should-come if I could. 
Je Paurais fait si avais pu. I should have done it, had I 
been able. 


Si vous me trompiez, je If you should (or were to) de- 
deviendrais bien malheureux. ceive me, I should be very 


unhappy. 
Si je retournais & Londres, If I should return to London, 
je le verrais. I should see him. . 
Je vous suivrais partout ou I should follow you wherever 
vous Iriez. you went. 


[815.] After quand, quand méme ‘though, even though,’ the French 
conditional may in English be rendered by ‘ were to (love, etc.).’ — Ex. 


4 ‘ ‘ ° 
Quand vous me hairiez, je ne m’en Even if you were to hate me, I should 
plaindrais pas. not complain. 


[316.] For-the conditional of devoir etc., ef. 317. b. 


317. Devoir, pouvoir, ne savoir.— The rendering of these 
verbs in English needs some special explanations. Thus: 

a. As ‘can’ and ‘ought’ have no participle in English, the 
compound tenses of pouvoir and devo/r are there rendered by 
another turn of the expression: /’a/ pu ‘I could’ (or ‘ 1may have,’ 
or ‘I have been able’); /’a/ dé ‘I ought to have’: ete. — Ex. 


Je n’ai pu le faire. I could not do it (I was unable- 
to do it). 
Il aurait di le faire. He ought to have done it. 
Ces hommes ont (or auront) These men may have perished. 
pu périr. 


Ii aurait da nvécrire (cf. b). He ought to have written me. 
b. Devoir, pouvoir, and ne savoir are used, before an infini- 
tive, in the simple conditional to denote respectively ‘ought,’ 


$17, 818.] 


VERBS. 


185 


‘could’ (‘might’), and ‘can not’; and devoir, pouvoir likewise 


in the compound conditional 

‘could (might) have.’ — Ex. 

Je devrais le faire (Je dois 
with ref. to immediate duty). 

Je pourrais l’essayer. 

Pourriez-vous me dire ? 

Je ne saurais (ne puis more 
definite) le faire. 

J’aurais di le faire. 

Vous auriez di venir. 

Ii naurait pu le faire. 


for ‘should (ought to) have,’ 


I ought to do it. 


I could (might) try it. 
Could you tell me? 
I cannot do it. 


I ought to have done it. 
You should(ought to) have come. 
He could not have done it. 


Norr.—In part this usage of the conditional seems idiomatic only 


because English has fused two originally independent forms into one. 
Si j’étais invité, je ne pourrais y aller ; 


Cf. 
J’ étais invité, mais je ne pus y aller ‘If 


I were invited I could not go there: I was invited, but I cou/d not go there.’ 


c. Devoir may be used in any tense (cf. b) to state things as 
due [dott ‘ought, should, is (destined or intended) to’ |. — Ex. 


Les enfants doivent obéir a 
leurs parents. 

Cela devait urriver. 

Il devait mourir (cf. 308. 1). 

Elie a da étre belle dans sa 
jeunesse. 

Selon le testament il devait 
avoir la maison. 


7 


Children 
parents. 

That was (destined) to happen. 

He ought to have died. 

She must have been beautiful 
in her youth. 

According to the will, he should 
(was to) have the house. 


should obey their 


318. Aller in auxiliary use.— To denote immediate fu- 
turity, je vais etc. are used as in English ‘I am going (I am 


about) ’ etc. — Ex. 


Il va partir. 
J’allais lui écrire. 


He is going (is about) to leave. 
I was about to write to him. 


Exercise XVI. 


ee 


186 SYNTAX. (819, 320. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


[319. HISTORY.— The use of the subjunctive in French has grown 
out of the use of the same mode in Latin. Yet the connection between the 
two has been much disturbed by various restrictions as well as extensions 
in French. In both languages, the subjunctive is used chiefly : 

A. When the idea involved in the verb-expression is not referred to as 
fulfilled or certain of being fulfilled [e.g. Lat. Opto ut veniat = Fr. Je désire 
qui vienne ; Lat. Necesse est ut veniat = Fr. I/ faut (11 est nécessaire) qu'il 
vienne; Lat. Legatos qui consulerent Apollinem misere = Fr. Ils envoyérent 
des députés qui consultassent Apollon] ; 

B. When the idea involved in the verb-expression is not the thing 
affirmed, as especially (in French almost exclusively) when it is accepted 
with some surprise or reserve [e.g. Lat. Miratur quod veniat = Fr. Elle est 
surprisse qu'il vienne ; Lat. Unus est qui possit = Fr. Il est le seul qui le puisse ; ; 
Quamvis boni sint= Fr. Quoiqu’ils soient bons]. 

Still, by a process of differentiation which has been going on through- 
out the whole history of the French language, some discrepancies of a 
comprehensive nature —such as the loss of the subjunctive of indirect 
discourse, the development of a conditional mood, in part assuming the 
office of the Latin subjunctive, the greatly increased use of the subjunctive 
of surprise (after any expression of emotion), etc. —and many of a more 
restricted nature, now exist between that language and the Latin. The 
quite uneven tendency of the French has been, on the whole, towards 
a restriction of the use of the subjunctive both in independent and sub- 
ordinate clauses, but especially in the former. Even yet that tendency is 
at work, and the choice of mode depends, in a measure, on the style used, 
whether rhetorical or colloquial. di 

In the 17th and 18th centuries the use of the subjunctive was not 
always the same as now. ‘Thus we often in classical authors find the 
subjunctive, where we should expect the indicative instead: e.g. Je crois 
qwil soit fou (Malherbe); Je crois que ce soit l’autre (Corneille); On 
dirait que les temples fussent autant d’hételleries (Racine) ; Je pensais qu’il 
fallit pleurer (Molitre). And, vice versa, we also sometimes find the 
indicative where we should expect the subjunctive: e.g. J’appréhende qu’il 
sera plus difficile (Balzac); Il semble qu’il est en vie (Molitre) ; Quoiqu’il 
n’y aurait rien de surprenant (Bossuet). | 


320. Tur SupsunorTivE is used, as described below, 


I. In SuzorpinaTE CiAuseEs to qualify the notion of their 
verb-phrase, with reference to some preceding expression, as 


320-322. ] VERBS. 187 


a. not realized (but simply willed, feared, doubted, etc.); b. as 
realized with some emotion (surprise, joy, sorrow, etc.); c. as stated 
with some mental reserve (either as being of a sweeping and ex- 
clusive nature, or as simply admitted without special affirmation. 
II. In Prrncreau Crausss chiefly to qualify the notion of 
the verb-phrase as willed. 


I. SuBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 


321. The subjunctive is used in subordinate clauses ‘intro- 
duced by the conjunction gue, or a conjunction-phrase ending 
with gue, or a relative pronoun or particle, for mainly three 
purposes, viz. : — 

A. To denote that the idea expressed by the subordinate verb- 
phrase is not put forth as realized or certain of being so, but 
simply with reference : —a. to its willed or intended com- 
pletion or non-completion [e.g. Je désive (ordonne, défends, etc.), 
qwil vienne ‘I desire (order, forbid, etc.) that he come’];—or 
b. to its contingent completion [e.g. Hn cas qu’il vienne 
‘In case he should come’];—or ec. its doubtfulness, or 
uncertainty [e.g. Je doute (ne crois pas, ne dis pas, etc.) quil 
vienne ‘I doubt (do not believe, do not say, etc.) that he comes ’]. 

B. To denote that it is realized.with some emotion, as of 
surprise, joy, sorrow, etc., expressed in the leading clause: 
Je m’étonne qvil l’ait dit ‘I am surprised that he has said 
it’; Je suis faché qw’il le sache ‘I am sorry that he knows it, 

C. To denote that it is stated with some mental reserve, 
whether:—a. as involving asweeping assertion that may | 
be erroneous [e.g. I7 est le seul qui puisse le faire ‘He is the 
only one that can do it’ ], or c. a concession made in favor 
of a more emphatic statement and as such admitted without 
positive assertion [e.g. Bien quw’il soft pawvre, il est honnéte 
homme ‘ Though he be poor, yet he is an honest man’ ]. 

[322.] These general principles are more fully specified in 


the following scheme, presenting in a synoptical form all the 
chief rules for the use of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses. 


188 


A. SuBJUNCTIVE OF UNREALIZED OR UNCERTAIN 


B. Sus. or 


C. Sups. or MENTAL 


SYNTAX. (323. 


[823.] SuBJUNCTIVE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES : 


COMPLETION 


EMOTION 


RESERVE 


f a, With the conjunction que (or a relative word) after cates 
or phrases implying that the act expressed by the dependent 
verb is viewed with reference to its willed or intended com- 
pletion, or the reverse:—i.e. after verbs and phrases denoting 
command, exhortation, desire, expectation (espérer and 
verbs of believing, unless referable to c., excepted), permis- 
sion, fitness, necessity, etc., or their opposites (forbid, 
fear, apprehend, etc.).— Cf. 325. 

Norsg. — After a relative (qui, lequel, dont, ou) only if the idea of 
purpose is implied. 

b. After conjunctive phrases such as afin que ‘in order that,’ 
en cas que ‘in case,’ pourvu que ‘ provided,’ etc., denoting a con- 
tingent completion of the act expressed by the dependent verb ; 
—and after que, if used for such phrases or for si (408. b). Cf. 
326. 

c. With the conjunction que (or a relative) after verbs or 
phrases describing the act expressed by the dependent verb as 
not certain, or probable, or possible, as after i/ n’est pas certain 
(probable, possible), douter, and so on, and after negative, interroga- 
tive, or conditional statements. — Cf. 327. 

Note. — Espérer ‘hope’ and verbs of believing or thinking 
must be used negatively, interrogatively or with sz, to be followed 
by the subjunctive, while verbs of doubt and fear always 
| require that mode. 

f With que after verbs or phrases expressing an inner emotion, 
such as surprise, disappointment, joy, sorrow, shame, 
rage (all rarely allowing the indic., when no surprise is involved). 
— Instead of que with the subj., de ce que usually with the indicative 
may be used to emphasize the reality of the verbal action. — Cf. 328. 

a. In relative clauses to soften a sweeping assertion (intro- 
duced in the main clause by some exclusive word or phrase, as 
especially a superlative, seul, nul, etc.), when there may be 
room for a possible mistake. — Cf. 329. 

b. After concessive or hypothetical conjunction-phrases, 
such as bien que ‘although,’ si . . que ‘however’ (not after si 
alone), guoique (the only one written in one word) ‘although, etc. ; 
and after indefinite pronoun-phrases, such as gui que, quel que, 


Vf 





| quelque que (but rarely tout que), etc. — Cf. 330, 


323.] 


VERBS. 


189 


Examples (determining words are spaced, and the sub- 


_junctives in bold type) : — 


A. Subj. of unrealized or uncertain completion (323. A): 
a (cf. also 382-3) 
J’ordonne quevouslefassiez.' I order you to. do it. 


Dis-leur qwils soient préts. 

Je défends qwils viennent 
jamais. 

Le maitre exige que vous 
soyez attentif. 

Je désire (souhaite) que vous 
soyez toujours heureux. 

Permettez (souffrez) que 
je vous dise la vérité. 

Jempécherai quwil ne le 
fasse. 

Je prendrai garde quwil ne 

‘le fasse. 

J’attends que vous me 
teniez parole. 

Japprouve que vous preniez 
vos précautions. 

Il faut qwil vienne tout de 
suite. 

Il importe quwil le sache. 


Il est juste (de toute jus- 
tice) que vous lui éeriviez. 

Il était temps que tu 
vinsses. 


Tell (= Order) them to be ready. 
I forbid them ever to come. 


The teacher requires you to be 
attentive. 

I desire (wish) that you may 
always be happy. 

Allow me to tell you the truth. 


I shall prevent him from doing 
it. 

I shall take care that he does 
not do it. 3 

I expect you to keep your 
word. 

I approve of your taking your - 
precautions. 

He must come immediately. 


It is important that he should 
know it. 

It is only fair that you should 
write him. 

It was time that you should 
come. 





1 French often (cf. 331) allows a subjunctive or an infinitive construc- 
tion, where in English only the latter can be used. Here Je vous ordonne 


de le faire would also be correct. 


oy 


190 | SYNTAX, [328,. 


Je cherche un maitre qui I am trying to find a teacher 
sache nv enseigner le francais. | who can teach me French. 

Lisez des livres qui puissent Read books that will form your 
former votre gowt (cf.a. note). taste. 

Ils envoyerent des députés qui They sent deputies who were 


consultassent Apollon. to consult Apollo. : 

Choisissez une place ow vous Choose a place where you will 
soyez a votre aise. be comfortable. 

Je crains que ma mére ne I fear my mother is (may be) 
(383) sort malade. ill. 

Je ne crains pas que ma Iam not afraid that my mother 
mere soit malade. is sick. | 

J’at peur qwil warrive pas I am afraid he may not arrive 
a temps. in time. 


b (cf. also 387) 
Approchez afin que (or sim- Approach that I may tell it to 


ply que) je vous dise cela. you. 
Je le ferai, pourvu qwil le I shall do it, provided he does 
fasse. it. | 
Conduisez-vous de maniére Behave in such a manner as to 
que vous soyez estimé. be esteemed. 
[But I] s’est conduitdemaniére [He has behaved in such a 
quil est estimé. | manner as to be esteemed. | 
A moins que vous ne soyez Unless you be diligent, and 
diligent et que (for & moins (unless you) take trouble, 


que) vous ne preniez de la you will not succeed. 
peine, vous ne réussirez pas. 
Je ne le ferai pas que je ne I will not do it until I have 


Vare vu (for sans que je seen him. 
Vale vu). 

Si je ne suis pas de retour & If I am not back at noon, and 
midi, et que (for si) quel- any one calls for me, retain 
qwun vienne me demander, him. 


retenez-le, 


323.] 


VERBS. 


191 


¢ (cf. also 383) 


Je doute que cela soit vrai. 

Je ne doute pas que cela ne 
(383) soit vrai. 

dl est douteux (possible, 
impossible) qwil Vart 
Sait. 

Je ne crois pas quil le 
fasse. 

Croyez-vous qwil le fasse? 

Si vous croyez quil le 
fasse, je wirai point. 

Espérez-vous qwelle re- 
vienne? J’espere quelle 
reviendra. 

Je ne savais pas (J’igno- 
rats) qwil fut permis. 

Je ne dis pas (Je dénie) 
qu'il ait tort. 

Il west pas shr (certain) 
qwil soit coupable. 

Est-il prouvé (sar, cer- 
tain) qwil Vait fait ? 

Y a-t-tl un homme qui 
puisse dire qwil est tou- 
jours heureux? 


I doubt if that be true. 
I have no doubt that is true. 


It is doubtful (possible, or im- 

_ possible) whether he has 
done it. 

I do not believe that he will 
do it. 

Do you believe he will do it? 

If you believe he will do it, I 
shall not go. ; 

Do you hope she will return? 
I hope she will return. 


I did not know that it was per- 
mitted. 

I do not say (I deny) that he 
is wrong. 

It is not certain that he is 
guilty. 

Is it proved (certain) that he 
has done it? ~ 

Is there a man who can say 
that he is always happy ? 


B. Subj. of emotion (323. B): 


Je m’étonne quwil ait pu le 
Faire. 

Je suis fadché quwil soit 
malade. 

Il se plaint que vous lui 
donniez si rarement de vos 
nouvelles. 


I am astonished that he has 
been able to do it. 
I am sorry that he is sick. 


He complains that you so sel- 
dom send him any news 
(write to him). 


192 SYNTAX. (328. 


C’est dommage quwil Vait It is a pity that he has done 


fait. it. 
Je suis bien aise qvil soit I am very glad that he has 


de retour. 

Il enrageait qwun ennemi 
presque barbare lui opposat 
une résistance invincible. 


returned. 


It angered him that an almost 


barbarous enemy should offer 
an invincible resistance. 


C. Subj. of mental reserve (323. C): 


a 

C'est Punique espoir qui me ‘This is the only hope that re- 
soit resté. mains to me. 

Vous étes le seul ami aqui You are the only friend on 
je puisse me fier. whom I can rely. 

Cest le mieux que It is the best you can do. 
puissiez faire. 

DL’ Evangile est le plus beau 
présent que Dieu ait fait 
aux hommes. 

Il y a peu Vhommes qui 
sachent supporter l adversité. 

b 

Although he be poor he is 
honest. 


vous 


The Gospel is the best gift 
which God has given to men. 


There are few men that can 
bear adversity. 


Bien qwil soit (Quoiqwil 
soit) pauvre, il est honnéte 
homme. 

Si mince qwil soit un cheveu 
fait de Vombre. 

Quoiquvil (En dépit qwil, 
Q wil, etc.) sort brave querrier, 
je lui rabattrai cet orgueil. his. 

Qui que vous soyez, entrez. | Whoever you be, come in. 

Quelques richesses que vous Whatever riches you possess, 
possédiez, ne méprisez pas do not despise the poor, 
les pauvres. 

About the use of negations with subjunctive after verbs of 

Jear, doubt, denial, etc., cf. 384, 


However small it be, a hair 
causes a shadow. 

Though he be a brave warrior, 
I shall humble that pride of 


- 


Eo 


ce dl ie agli 


 * 


324-326. ] 3 VERBS. 193 
324. ALPHABETICAL REFERENCE-LISTS OF WORDS FOLLOWED BY THE SUB- 
JUNCTIVE.— For convenience of reference, all the more common words 
and phrases causing the use of the subjunctive (unless, indeed, the infinitive 
be preferred : 331) are enumerated alphabetically below under headings 
corresponding to those in the tabular statement above (828). 


A. SussuncTive or UNREALIZED OR UNCERTAIN COMPLETION (323. A): 
a 

[825.] Verbs and verb-phrases of contingent result followed by que and 
the subjunctive : — abhorrer, admettre, agréer, aimer, aimer mieux, appréhender, 
approuver, arréter (cf. note), attendre (when expectation, not positive con- 
viction, is implied: cf. also c), avoir besoin (crainte, envie, peur, soin) ; bldmer, 
briler (‘desire ardently’); commander, conjurer, consentir, convenir (il con- 
vient) ; craindre, décider, décréter, défendre, demander, désapprouver, désespérer, 
désirer, dire (= ‘ order’); empécher, entendre (‘intend, expect’); — étre (a@ 
désirer, & propos, assez, bon, bien, convenable,-d’avis, difficile, digne, d’opinion, 
essentiel, facile, faux, important, indispensable, injuste, juste, naturel, nécessaire, 
peu, rare, temps, urgent, etc.) ;—éviter, exiger; falloir (il faut: cf. also c) ; 
garder ; importer (il importe); louer ; mériter ; ordonner (cf. note); s’opposer 
(& ce que), permettre, plaire, préférer, prendre garde (prendre soin), prétendre 
(=‘ require’); prier, redouter; répondre (introducing a command), souffrir 
( =‘ allow’), souhaiter, su fire (il suffit), supplier, supposer ; tacher, tarder (il me 
tarde), tenir & ce que, trembler (=‘ fear’), trouver bon (mal, mauvais, injuste, 
juste, naturel, etc. cf. étre) ; valoir bien or mieux (impers.), veiller, vouloir. 

Nors.— Verbs denoting an authoritative (official) decision or decree 
are frequently followed by the future indicative, or the conditional, the 
result being looked upon as certain. — Ex. @dipe ordonna que chacun 
régnerait son année (Racine). Il fut décidé qu’on ne recevrait plus de com- 
missaires (Guizot). 

b 

[326.] Conjunctive phrases of contingent result or condition followee 
by the subjunctive : — @ condition que (when the proviso is not yet accepted), 
afin que, & moins que, au cas que, avant que, dans la crainte que, de crainte que, 
de facon que or de maniére que (if denoting purpose, not result), de peur que, 
de sorte que (if denoting purpose, not result), en attendant que, en cas que, 
en sorte que (if denoting purpose, not result), jusqu’a ce que (not referring 
to an accomplished fact) ;— (here or with 330) posé que, pourvu que, sans 
que, si ce n’est que, soit que, supposé que. 

The relative words gui, dont, and ou are followed by the subjunctive 
whenever the state or action denoted by the verb of the relative clause is 
simply intended or conceived as possible, not real or sure to become so. 


194 SYNTAX. [326-829. 
Cf. Ils envoyérent des députés qui consultassent (‘who should consult,’ but 
gui consultérent ‘who consulted’) Apollon. Montrez-moi un chemin qui con- 
duise (but le chemin qui conduit) a N. Prétez-moi un livre dont vous n’ayez 
pas besoin (but ce livre dont vous n’avez pas besoin). Choisissez une place ou 
vous soyez bien (but Ne quittez pas une place ou vous étes si bien). 


c 

[827.] Verbs and verb-phrases of denial and doubt or uncertainty fol- 
lowed by que and the subjunctive (those marked with asterisk requiring to 
be used negatively, interrogatively, or with a conditional si, in order to 
be followed by the subjunctive): — *admettre, *affirmer, *s’apercevoir, 
* apprendre, * arriver (il arrive), * assurer, * s’attendre (cf. also 825), * avouer, 
* comprendre (always when = ‘find reasonable’), * concevoir (always when = 
‘find reasonable ’), * connaitre, contester, * conclure, convenir,* croire, * déclarer, 
démentir, désespérer, * deviner, * dire (‘ say, tell’: cf. also 325), disconvenir, 
dissimuler (but ne pas dissimuler with indic. or subj.), douter, se douter, 
*s’ensuivre, * entendre (cf. also 325), *entendre dire, *espérer, étre (in il est 
dangereux, douteux, impossible, possible, rare, etc.), * étre certain (clair, démon- 
tre, évident, probable, sir, vrai, vraisemblable, etc.) ; * se flatter, falloir (beaucoup 
s’en faut, peut s’en faut, tant s’en faut: cf. also a.), *gager, ignorer (but ne 
pas ignorer with indic.), (s’)imaginer, *juger, *jurer, nier, * oublier, * parier, 
* penser, pouvoir (il se, peut, il peut se faire), * prédire, * prétendre (cf. 326), 
* présumer, prevoir, * promettre, * se rappeler, * remarquer, * répondre (cf. 325), 
* reconnattre, *résulter (il résulte), * savoir, sembler (il semble, but *71 me semble), 
* sentir, *soupconner, *soutenir, se * souvenir, *supposer, tenir (il tient @), 
* trouver, * voir. 

Conjunctive phrases followed by the subjunctive : —ce n’est pas que, loin 
que, non pas que, non que. 

B. SuspsunctTivE oF Emorion (823. B) : 

[328.] Verbs and verb-phrases of emotion followed by que and the sub- 
junctive : — admirer, s’affliger, approuver, avoir honte (regret) , blamer, déplorer, 
s’enrager, s’étonner ; — étre affligé (dommage, chagriné, charmé, choqué, curieux, 
enchanté, étonné, étonnant, étrange, faché, facheux, flatté, heureux, honteux, 
indigné, jaloux, malheureux, mécontent, mortifié, pitié, regrettable, surprenant, 
surpris, au désespoir, dans l’étonnement, une honte, un malheur, etc.) ;— se facher, 
gémir, s’indigner, se plaindre, plaire (il plait), regretter, se réjouir, répugner 
(il répugne), trouver bon (étrange), voir a regret. 

C. SussunctiveE oF MEentTAL RESERVE (823. B): 
a 

[329.] Words of an excessive or sweeping sense followed by a relative 

pronoun or particle and the subjunctive ;—J/e dernier, le premier, le seul, 


rm 
et ae 


2 : 
329-331.] VERBS. 195 


Punique, and superlatives; negatives (ne alone, or especially with a 
complement, such as pas, point, aucun, personne, nul, que, rien etc.); peu de 
(with a noun); and in questions of appeal, cf. 378. 


[880.] Conjunctions and enaousieal phrases denoting concession, etc., 
followed by the subjunctive :— bien que, combien que, encore que, en dépit 
que, malgré que, non (obstant) que, ou que, pour que, que (= quoique), quel que, 
quel .. . que, quelque que, quelque .. . que, quelque .. . qui, qui que, qui... que, 
qui que ce soit+a relat., qui que, quot que, quoique, quoi qui, sans que, si... 
que, tant ... que, tout... que (for the most part, however, denoting a fact 
and followed by the indicative). 

@> It should be noted that the above classification of words requiring 
the subjunctive is not so absolute, but that some of them may not in dif- 
ferent uses be referred to different classes. 


331. INFINITIVE FOR SUBJUNCTIVE. —It is of importance 
to observe that when the subject of the dependent clause 
is actually or impliedly identical with the subject or object 
(direct or with a) of the leading clause, the infinitive is usually 
preferred (in some cases required) to the subjunctive, provided 
the sense is not thereby obscured. The student can often, but 
not always, be guided, in this respect, by testing whether an 
- infinitive would be allowed in English. — Special cases are : 

a. Generally an infinitive would be preferred after verbs or 
phrases of willing, necessity, and feeling. — Ex. 


Je désire avoir un cheval. I wish (to have) I had a horse. 

Je crains de ne pas le trou- I fear I shall not find him at 
ver chez lui. home. 

Il faut le faire ce soir. It must be done this evening 


(if it is clear who is to do it; 
otherwise subj.). 
Dites-leur de s’en aller. Tell them to be gone. 
Je suis bien fach éd’étre décu. I am very sorry to be deceived. 
Note. — We say Il faut qwil vienne or II lui faut venir ‘He 
must come’; but only I] faut que mon frere vienne ‘ My brother 
must come.’ That is, two constructions are allowed when the 
subject is a pronoun, but only one when it is a noun. 


196 SYNTAX. | (331-334. ° 


b. Instead of afin que, pour que, de maniére que, en sorte que, 
avant que with a subjunctive, afin de, pour, de maniére a, en 
sorte de, avant de with an infinitive is frequently used. — Ex. 


Je consens & me perdre afin I consent to destroy myself in 


de la sauver. order to save her. 
Ii le fait pour se sauver. He does it to save himself. 
Fermez la porte avant de Close the door before you go 
sortir. out (always inf., no uncer- 


tainty being implied). 
Tuez le cheval avant de le Kill the horse before you lose 
perdre (or subj.). him. 3 


SPECIAL CASES OF SUBJUNCTIVE USAGE. 


332. Si ‘if’ is regularly followed by indicative. Yet the 
imperfect subjunctive (simple or compound) is sometimes used, 
especially in rhetorical style, instead of the simple or (usually) 
compound imperfect after si, or without si, with inversion of 
verb and pronoun-subject. —Ex. Si j’eusse (or j’avais) eu de 
Vargent, je vous aurais payé. Euat-il voulu prendre ce. parti, 
Pierre n’y edt (3838) pas consenti. Fiut-il & cent lieues Mici, 
jirais le chercher. Fut-il la valeur méme. 


Note also Dusse-je mourir, je le ferai ‘Though I should die, I shall do 
it.’ 


333. Que followed by ne, and used in the sense of ‘ without,’ ‘unless,’ 
‘until,’ requires the subjunctive. — Ex. J/ ne joue jamais qu’il ne perde 
(= sans qu’il perde). 


334. When no uncertainty or mental reservation of any 
kind is present in the mind of the speaker, words that usually 
govern the subjunctive require the indicative (observing 323. 
B); and, vice versa, words that are commonly followed by the 
indicative may, in special uses, be followed by the subjunctive. 
Compare : 


| 


a se CO UL lO 


334.] 


INDICATIVE : 

Il se plaint de ce que vous 
Vavez trompé. He com- 

plains about your deceiv- 
ing him. | 

Pensez-vous que sa protec- 
tion mest nécessaire! Do 
you think I need his protec- 
tion! (= I certainly do not). 

Si vous croyez quil est cou- 
pable, pourquoi ne le punis- 
sez-vous pas? If youbelieve 
him guilty (as you do), why 
do you not punish him ? 

J’entends que vous voulez 
(327) rester. I hear that 
you wish to remain. 

Tl suffit que tu Vas voulu 
une fois. It is sufficient 
that you have wished it 
once. 

Je ne crois pas que Dieu 
est cruel. I do not believe 
that God is cruel (which 
he cannot be). 

Il s'est comporté de telle 
maniere qu’il a mérité 
Vestime des gens de bien. 
He has behaved in such a 
manner that he has deserved 
the esteem of honest people. 

J’y restai jusqu’da ce que 
mon pere arriva. Lremained 
there until my father arrived. 


VERBS. 


197 


SUBJUNCTIVE : 
Il se plaint que vous Vayez 
trompé. He complains that 
you have deceived him. 


Pensez-vous que sa protection, 
me soit nécessaire? Do you 
think I need his protection ? 


Si vous croyez qwil soit cou- 
pable, pourquoi ne lexaminez 
vous pas? If you think he 
may be guilty, why do you 
not examine him? 

J’entends que vous restiez 
(3825) avec moi. I expect you 
to remain with me. 

Il suf fit que vous le disiez 
(325) pour que je le crote. For 
me to believe it, it is enough 
that you say it. 

Jenecrois pas que cet homme 
soit (325) cruel. I do not 
believe that this man is cruel 
(though he may be). 

Comportez-vous de telle sorte 
que vous meéritiez (326) 
Vestime des gens de bien. Be- 
have in such a manner as to 
deserve the esteem of honest 
people. 

J’y resterai jusqu’a ce que 
je sois (3826) guéri. I shall 
remain there until I get well, 


198 SYNTAX. (335-337, 


[335.] Exceptionally, both the indicative and the subjunctive are found 
after the same verb, according as the sense requires one or the other. — 
Ex. Dis-lui que je suis empéché, et qwil vienne. Les soldats criaient 
qu’on les menat au combat; qu’ils voulaient venger la mort de leur général ; 
qu’on les laissat faire ; quils étaient furieuz. 


UstE or TENSE IN THE SUBORDINATE SUBJUNCTIVE. 


336. The tense of the subjunctive in a subordinate clause 
usually (cf. 337) depends on that of the principal clause. It 
is present (simple or compound), if the leading verb is in the 
present or future (simple or compound); in other cases it is 
imperfect (simple or compound). “ 

As for the choice of simple or compound tenses, the former are used 


to express present or future time, and the latter past time relatively to the 
time of the principal verb. 


Examples : — 
Je permets quvil sorte. I permit him to go out. 
J’ai permis qwil sorte. I have allowed him to go out. 


Je permettrai qwil sorte. Ishall permit him to go out. 
Je doute qwil art fait son I doubt whether he has done 


devoir. his duty. 
Jen’ ai point dit qwil parle I have not said that he speaks 
(ait parlé) mieux que vous. (has spoken) better than you. 
Je permis qwil sortit. I permitted him to go out. 


Javais permis qvil sortit. I had permitted him to go out. 

Je permettrais qvil sortit. I should permit him to go out. 

Je doutai(s) que vous Peus- I doubted whether you had done 
siez fait (le fissiez). it (would do it). 

Nous aurions souhaité We should have wished that 
que Vaffaire eut eté ter- the matter had been settled 


minée & Vamiable. in a friendly way. 
Je le lui ai dis afin qwil le I have told him about it, that 
sache. he might know it. 


[337.] The chief exceptions to this rule are those determined by the 
relation of thought, all formal rules for the sequenve of tenses being sub- 
ject to that principle. Thus: 


= 


$37, 338.] VERBS. 199 


a. In some cases (as especially in those coming under 330), the differ- 
ence in the time referred to by the main and the subordinate verb may 
require the latter to be construed independently. — Ex. 


Bien qwil soit fort ul fut vaincu. Although he is strong, he was van- 

quished. ; 

Supposons que notre histoire fut Let us suppose that our history were 
a composer. yet to be composed. 

Je nen connais pas un qu voulat I do not know one who would be 
me servir. willing to serve me. 


b. The present subjunctive is used independently of the governing verb 
to denote a general truth, and always after on dirait, on croirait (both = il 
semble), and je ne saurais (= je ne puis). — Ex. 


La raison nous fut donnée pour que Reason was bestowed on us that we 


nous puissions nous conduire avec might conduct ourselves with wis- 
sagesse. dom. 

C’était une des plus belles fétes It was one of the finest festivities 
qu’on puisse voir, that one can see. 


e. The imperfect conjunctive is commonly used after a compound 
present, when this is equivalent to a preterit. — Ex. 


J'ai empéché quvil ne sortit. I prevented him from going out. 
Je lai payé avant qwil partit. I paid him before he left. 
d. When the subjunctive clause is followed by a conditional clause, the 
tense of its verb is determined by that of the latter. — Ex. 
Je doute qwil jouat s’il avait de I doubt if he would play, if he had 


Vargent. money. 
Jenecrois pas quil en futvenua TI do not believe he would have suc- 
bout, quand méme je l’aurais aide. ceeded, even had I helped him. 


Exercise XVII. 


ee 


II. SuspsunctitvE In INDEPENDENT CLAUSES. 


338. In independent clauses, the subjunctive is used: 

A. To denote, in an imperative or exclamatory way, 
that the act expressed by the verb is in some manner willed 
(i.e. desired, commanded, etc.) —some governing word, such as 
désirer etc., being readily supplied. 


200 SYNTAX. (338, 339. 


B. Frequently, instead of a compound conditional, to express 
a hypothetical conclusion. 


Examples : 
A. Vive le roi! Long live the king! 

Ainsi so/t-il ! Thus may it be! 

Dieu sort loué! God be praised ! 

Plit & Dieu qwil en fat Would to God it were so. 
ainsi. 

Puissiez-vous réussir. May you (be able to) succeed. 

Qwil dise la vérité. Let him (May he) tell the truth. 

Qwil parte tout de suite. Let him (He must) depart im- 

mediately. 

Qwil fasse ce qwil lui Let him do what he likes. 

plaira. 


B. Qui Veut (Vaurait) eru? =Who would have believed it ? 
Ii eit voulu suivre les He would fain have frequented 


thédtres. the theatres. 

J’eusse adouei votre sort, I would (might) have lightened 
si jeusse (332) connu your lot, had I known your 
votre misére. misery. 


Eit-il (332) voulu prendre Even if he had been willing to 
ce parti, Pierre n’y eit take this step, Peter would 
pas consenti. not have consented. 


Nore 1.— The independent subjunctive with que is thus habitually 
used to supply the imperative for the 3d persons (Engl. ‘let him’ ete.; cf. 
example 6 etc. above; Qu’il vienne ‘let him come’: etc.). 

Nore 2.—The sentinel’s challenge Qui vive ‘Who comes there?’ 
originally meant ‘ Who (do you wish) may live? On which side are you?’ 
But the force of the expression is no longer felt, as shown by the answer: 


Sami.’ 


339. To soften an assertion, the subjunctive form sache (of savoir 
‘know’) may be used negatively, in the first person, or after que. — Ex. 
Je ne sache rien de plus beau ‘I know nothing more beautiful.’ J/ ne viendra 
pas que je sache (cf. Lat. quod sciam) ‘He will not come so far as I 


—- ‘te 


339-341.] | VERBS. 5; 201 


know.’ Ltait-elle jolie, que vous sachiez? ‘Do you know whether she was 
pretty ?’ 





Exercise XVIII. 





Tuer INFINITIVE. 


[340. HISTORY.— The French infinitive, replaced the Latin infini- 
tive and gerund both. Unlike the Latin infinitive, it is frequently con- 
strued with de or & (the ‘infinitive sign’), even when used as subject or 
direct object: cf. Lat. Turpe est mentiri = Fr. I/ est honteux de mentir. The 
use of de is due to the fact that in early times the subject-infinitive — as 
also often the subject-noun — was looked upon as expressing the source 
or origin of the predicative statement (e.g. ‘Shame is from lying’: so also 
Bonne chose est de paix ‘ Peace is a good thing’: Joinville). Gradually this 

‘de losing its significance came to be used as a mere neutral infinitive sign, 
even where not logically explainable. So also 4a, at first used to denote 
aim or purpose, came to be a mere neutral sign. De and @ are now far 
more frequentiy used than no preposition. 

The infinitive was once used much more freely than now. Even in the 
writers of the 17th century, the infinitive is frequently found used where 
some other turn of expression would now be required; and it is often con- 
strued with a preposition that would not now be allowed. E.g. Ma gueérison 
dépend de parler a Meélite (Corneille). Jusqu’a avoir parlé (Sévigné). Dieu 
nous donne cet exemple a nous fortifier (= pour qu’il nous fortifie) : Moliere. } 


341. THE INFINITIVE is in French, as in English, a verbal 
noun representing the action of the verb without designating 
person or time. 

It is of importance, however, to remember that the French 
infinitive (e.g. aimer) may in English be rendered by the 
infinitive proper (‘love’), or by the gerund (= participial 
noun in -ing), by the latter chiefly after any preposition not 
equal to ‘to.”—Ex. Il aime a parler ‘He loves to talk (or 
talking).’ II s’abstient de parler ‘ He abstains from talking.’ 

Nore 1.— As will be seen below, the French infinitive cannot always 
be translated into idiomatic English by an English infinitive. 


Notre 2.—French never uses parlant ‘speaking’ etc. as a werent noun, 
except after en (370). 


oe 


202 SYNTAX. (341-343. 


Like any other noun, the infinitive may be the subject, | 
predicate noun, or object (direct or prepositional) of a verb. 
Unlike nouns, however, it is often preceded by a neutral de 
ord (the ‘infinitive-sign’ = English ‘to,’ ef. 340) as a nomina- 
tive or accusative. — Ex. C’est a vous de parler ‘It is for you to 
speak’ (i.e. ‘speaking belongs to you’). Il aime da parler ‘He 
loves talking’ (or ‘to talk’). 


342. THE INFINITIVE ALONE OR WITH A PREPOSITION, — 
The infinitive may stand alone, or be governed by one of the» 
prepositions de, a, par, pour, sans, apres, entre, or by a prep- 
ositional phrase ending in de or a (avant de, a force de, etc.). 

The main principles determining the construction of the 
infinitive are pointed out below. Instead of expanding these 
principles by detailed rules (too intricate to be of real practi- 
cal value), alphabetical reference-lists of all the more 
common verbs requiring the infinitive alone or with de or @ 
(the cases that offer any serious difficulties) are added under 
each general rule. 


343. INFINITIVE ALONE. — The infinitive is used without 
preposition : 

a. As subject (except, usually, when by inversion it follows 
the verb, and, often, when repeated by ce, cela); or as predicate- 
nominative after c’est, sembler, paraitre. — Ex. 


Médire est wne infamie. To calumniate (calumniation) 
is shameful. 

Promettre et tenir sont deux. To promise and to keep are 
different things. 

N’étre bon gwd soi cest To be good to nobody but one’s 


nétre bon a rien. self is to be good for nothing. 
Te voir cest taimer. To see thee is to love thee. 
A quoi bon en parler ? Why speak of it? 
Il semble vous aimer. He seems to love you. 


Il me semble Vavoir vu. Methinks I saw it (him). 


343, 344.] VERBS. : 203 


b. As object (direct or prepositional) after most verbs of 
causation or duty, or of thinking, willing, speaking, 
and motion. — Ex. 


Je ferat batir une maison. I shall cause a house to be built. 

Je dois partir ce soir. I am to set out this evening. 

Un homme Whonneur doit A man of honor should keep 
tenir sa parole. his word. 

Je croyais (voulais, désirais, I thought (wished, desired, 
espérais, etc.) lui rendre hoped, etc.) I did (to do) 
un service. him a service. 

Il affirme (assure, prétend, He asserts (protests, pretends, 
confesse, etc.) Vavoir vu. admits, etc.) that hehas seen it. 

Je cours lui apprendre cette I hasten to tell him this news. 
nouvelle. 


Venez nous voir ce soir. Come to see us this evening. 


[3844.] RereREeNce-.ist of verbs taking the direct infinitive : 


accourir déclarer mener rentrer 
affirmer désirer } nier} retourner 
aimer autant devoir? observer revenir 
(mieux) 8 &couter oser savoir 
aller entendre ouir sembler 
apercevoir entrevoir paraitre sentir 
assurer envoyer pouvoir souhaiter 1} 
avoir beau espérer } préférer soutenir 
avouer étre censé pressentir témoigner 
compter faillir (cf. 353) pretendre se trouver 
confesser Saire (cf. 208) prévoir valoir autant 
consideérer il fait beau protester (mieux) * 
convenir il fait bon raconter voir 
courir falloir reconnaitre voler 
croire se figurer regarder vouloir 
daigner s’imaginer 





1 Also, though rarely, with de. 


2 de when construed with a dative. 
8 Direct infinit, in first, and infinit. with de in second term (cf. 348). 


204 


SYNTAX. 


[345, 346. 


[845.] In exclamations and questions of appeal, where the governing 
verb is understood, the infinitive is also used directly. — Ex. Moi, vous 
payer! Pourquoi toujours parler d’un pareil scélérat? Quel parti prendre? 

Notes. — Observe also these elliptical infinitives of direction: S’adresser 


au concierge ‘Apply to the porter.’ 


‘namely, viz.’ 


Voir page 3 ‘See page 3. Savoir 


346. INFINITIVE WITH de.—The infinitive with de is used: 

a. Generally as inverted subject or as predicate-nominative, 
except after a few verb-expressions [the impersonals i faut, 
il fait (beau etc.), il semble, il vaut (mieux, autant); and c'est, 
sembler, paraitre |, which require a direct infinitive. 

b. As object (direct or prepositional) usually after verbs 
logically implying a separation (‘from, of’) or a means 
or concern (‘with, by, about, to”); and some others, 


Examples : 


Le plus grand art est de 
cacher Vart. 

C’est & vous de parler. 

Il me plait dobliger un ami. 

Son premier commandement 
est d’aimer Dieu. 
(but) 

Il faut venir. 


Je vous conseille de partir. 

Ne différez pas plus longtemps 
de partir. 

Il évite avec soin de me ren- 
centrer. 

Il s'abstient de boire. 

Ii commande au soleil .d’ani- 
mer la nature. 

Je me réjouis d’étre venu. 

Je crains de vous déplaire. 


a. 
The greatest art is to conceal 
art. 
It is for you to speak. 
It pleases me to oblige a friend. 
His first commandment is to 
love God. 


It is necessary to come. 


b. 
I advise you to set out. 
Do not delay any longer your 
departure. 
He avoids carefully to meet 
me, 
He abstains from drinking. 
He commands the sun to give 
life to nature, 
I am glad that I came. 
T am afraid to displease you. 





347.] 


VERBS. 


205 


[847.] ReFreRENCE-LIsT of verbs taking infinitive with de: 


s’absoudre 
s’absenter 
accorder (refi. 
with a) 
accuser 
achever 
admirer 
affecter 
s’affliger 
il s’agit 
ambitionner 
s’apercevoir 
appartenir 
s’applaudir 
appréhender 
s’attrister 
avertir 
s’aviser 
n’avoir garde 
avoir peur 
blémer 
_briguer 
briler (yearn) 
cesser 
charger 
choisir 
commander 
conjurer 
conseiller 
se consoler 
se contenter 
convenir (agree) 
il convient 
couter (impers.) 
craindie 
crier 
deédaigner 


dégotter 

se défaire 
défendre 

se dépécher 
désaccoutumer 
désespérer 
déshabituer 


_ détester 


différer 

dire (bid) 
discontinuer 
disconvenir 
dispenser 
dissuader 
douter (hesitate) 
écrire 
empécher 
enjoindre 
s’enorgueillir 
enrager 
entreprendre 
s’étonner 
éviter 
s’excuser 
exempter 
faire bien 
faire mieux 
Saire semblant 
feindre 
Séliciter 

se féliciter 
flatter 

se flatter 
Srémir 
gager 

se garder 
gémir 


se glorifier 
gronder 
hasarder 
se hasarder 
hair 

se hater 
s’indigner 


' s’inquiéter 


inspirer 

Jurer (promise 
with an oath) 

/ouer 

mander 

méditer 

se méler 

menacer 

meriter 

mourir 

négliger 

nier 

offrir (refl. with 
i) 

omettre 

ordonner 

pardonner 

parler 

parier 

permettre 

persuader 

se piquer 

plaindre 

se plaindre 

préferer 

prendre soin 

prescrire 

presser 

présumer 


prier 
projeter 
promettre 
proposer 

se proposer 
protester 
punir 

se rappeler 
recommander 


refuser (refl. with 


i) 
regretter 

se réjouir 
remercier 
rendre grace 
se repentir 
reprocher 


résoudre (refl. with 


i) 
rire 

risquer 

rougir 

il sied 

sommer 

sé soucier 
souffrir 
souhaiter 
soupgonner 

se souvenir 
suffire (impers.) 
suggérer 
supplier 

tarder (impers. ) 
tenter 

trembler 

trouver bon 

se vanter 


206 SYNTAX. [348-350. 


[348.] After a comparative, ‘than’ is always rendered by que de.— 
Ex. 


Il aime mieux périr que de se plaindre. He would rather die than complain. 
J’aime autant rester ici que de _ I like just as much to stay here as to 
sortir. go out. 


[849.] Historicat INFiNITIVE.— The French infinitive with de is some- 
times used (like the Latin historical infinitive) instead of the indicative in 
lively narration.— Ex. Ainsi dit le renard, et flatteurs d’applaudir (La 
Fontaine). 


350. INFINITIVE WITH a. — The infinitive with @ is used: 

a. As direct object after avoir, aimer (yet, after aimerais, 
the cond., no preposition), hair, chercher, trouver, stats 
enseigner, montrer. — Ex. 


J’ai a vous parler. I have something to speak to 
you about. 
Ti aime (Il hait) a se leverde He likes (dislikes) to rise 
bon matin. early. 
Il cherche a m’éviter. He tries to avoid me. 


Il m’enseigne (me montre) a He teaches me drawing. 
dessiner. 


b. As indirect object usually after verbs implying direction 
‘ towards (‘to, at, in, in reference to’), and some others. — Ex. 


Il s’applique a faire son devoir. He tries to do his duty. 
On m’a invité &@ faire une I have been invited to take a 


promenade. walk. 
Il aspire a se faire un nom. He is ambitious to make a name. 
Habituez vos enfants a prier Accustom your children to pray 
Dieu. to God. 
Notre bonheur consiste a vivre Our happiness consists in living 
suivant la nature. according to nature. 
Elle 2¢ plait a travailler. She takes pleasure in working. 
Il n’y a pas @ hésiter. There is no room for hesitation. 


Elle s'amuse @ Irre. She diverts herself by reading. 


351-353. ] 


VERBS. 


207 


[351.] Rererence-uist of verbs taking infinitive with a: 


s’abaisser balancer s’évertuer persister 

aboutir se borner exceller se plaire 
s’abuser chercher exciter se plier 
s’accorder (cf.347) se complaire exercer porter (induce) 
s’accoutumer concourir exhorter pousser 
s’acharner condamner exposer préparer 
admettre consentir se fatiquer prétendre 
s’aguerrir consister former provoquer 

aider conspirer gagner recommencer 
aimer (or de) se consumer s’habituer se refuser (cf. 347) 
amener contraindre se hasarder réduire 

amuser contribuer hésiter renoncer 
animer convier incliner répugner 
appeler couter instruire se résigner 
s’appliquer destiner s’intéresser se résoudre (cf. 347) 
apprendre dévouer inviter se résoudre 
s’appréter disposer se mettre réussir 

aspirer se disposer montrer servir 

assigner divertir nécessiter songer 
assujettir donner s’obstiner suffire (pers.) 
s’attacher employer soffrir (cf. 847) tarder (pers.) 
attendre encourager parvenir tendre 
s’attendre engager passer (le temps) tenir 

autoriser enhardir pencher travailler 
s’avilir enseigner penser trouver 

avoir (have to) _ s’entendre perdre viser 

avoir peine s’étudier persévérer vouer 


[352.] After étre the active infinitive with @ is in French often used 


where in English the passive infinitive (= Lat. participle in -dus) is re- 
quired. — Ex. Ce theme est a refaire ‘This theme must be done again (i.e. is 
for correcting).’ J/ restait a sauver deux cents hommes ‘There remained to 
be saved (not It remained to save) 200 men.’ 


353. INFINITIVE ALONE OR WITH de OR @ AFTER THE 
SAME VERBS. — After some verbs the infinitive is used vari- 


ously without preposition or with de or a, according to certain 
distinctions, or in part optionally, as described below. 


208 SYNTAX. [353, 


commencer, continuer, contraindre : optionally de or a. 

decider: de, intr. ‘decide, make up one’s mind’ (J’ai décidé de partir); — 
ui, tr. ‘cause to decide, i.e. induce’; refl. ‘decide’ (Je Pai décidé & partir). 

défier: de, ‘defy’ (Je le défie d’y aller) ; —4a, ‘challenge’ (Je te défie @ jouer 
au billard). 

demander de, ‘ask’ somebody else (.Je demande d’ observer ‘I ask that one 
observe’) ; —@, ‘ask’ for one’s self (Je demande @ observer ‘I ask the 
permission to remark’). 

déterminer - de or @ like décider. 

dire: no preposition, ‘say, assert’; with de ‘tell, order.’ — Ex. 
Il dit Pavoir vu. Hesayshehas Ti lui ditdes’enaller. He tells (told) 

seen it. him to go away. 

s’empresser, s’ennuyer, essayer: de or @ (essayer us’ly de). 

étre usually takes a. But c’est followed by a predicate infinitive (546. a) 
or in the expression c’est a‘ it belongs to or is the office of’ requires de. — 
Ex. C'est a lui de venir ‘It is for him to come.’ 

faillir: no prep. (de, d), ‘just miss, come very near’; jfinir, forcer: de, a 

jurer ‘attest by oath,’ no preposition; de,‘ promise’: J/ jure Pavoir vu * He 
swears he has seen it.’ J/ jure de le faire ‘He swears to do it.’ 

laisser: no preposition, ‘let, cause’ ;—de, in negative clauses ‘leave off, 
cease’; with a, ‘leave.’ — Ex. 


Il me laisse partir. He lets me depart. 
Il ne laisse pas de se plaindre. He does not cease complaining. 
Il me laisse a y penser. He leaves me to think about it. 


manquer : de, ‘fail, omit’; ‘all but do’ (// a manqué de tomber ‘He came 
near falling’) ;—d, ‘omit, fail in’ (one’s duty) (J/ a manqué @ remplir 
ses devoirs) ;—no prep. = manquer de. Cf. faillir, above. 

obliger: de or a. 

s’occuper: de, ‘be busy’ physically ;— a, ‘be busy’ mentally, ‘ think of.’ 

oublier: de, ‘forget to’; —d, ‘forget how to.’ 

penser ; no preposition ‘intend’; with a, ‘ think.’ 

prendre garde: de, (de faire) ‘take care (not to do)’;—d (a ne pas faire) 
‘take care’ (not to do). 

résoudre: de, ‘resolve’ intr.;— 4, ‘induce,’ tr.; determine, refl. 

tacher ; de, ‘try’ generally ; —@, ‘try; purpose.’ 

tarder: de, il me tarde de ‘I long’; —4, ‘ delay.’ 

venir: no preposition ‘come and,’ or ‘come to = in order to’ 
(in this sense also with pour) ; — venir de ‘come from = have 


just (done a thing)’; — venir a ‘ happen.’ — Ex. 


— 


353-360. ] VERBS. 209 


Ii vint me le dire. He came and told me about it. 
Je viens (pour) lui parler. I come to speak to him. 

Je viens de lui parler. I have just spoken to him. 
S’il venait a mourir. If he should happen to die. 


Observe also a few verbs (accorder, offrir, etc.) used with de when transi- 
tive, but with @ when reflexive: 347, 351. 


354. Par with the infinitive rarely occurs after verbs of 
beginning and ending (chiefly commencer, continuer, finir). — 
Ex. Il commenca par nous injurier ‘He began by insulting us.’ 


355. Pour is common before an infinitive in the sense of 
‘for, (in order) to’; also of ‘to’ after assez, trop, etc.; and now 
more rarely in the sense of ‘for = because of.’ — Ex. 


Il est ict pour me voir. He is here in order to see me. 
Ii est trop franc pour vous He is too candid to deceive 
tromper. you. 


Il est punt pour avoir menti. He is punished for having lied. 


356. Sans is common with an infinitive: J/ parle sans penser. 


357. Aprés is used only before the compound infinitive (being sup- 
plied by aprés de before the simple). — Ex. Aprés avoir fini ‘after having 
finished.’ 


358. Entre is rare: Il balance entre aller et rester ‘He wavers between 
going and staying.’ 


359. After en not the infinitive, but the gerundial participle 
(in -ant) is used in French, as in English (367). 


360. The inverted subject infinitive after c’est is often pre- 
ceded by an expletive gue (266). — Ex. C’est un tourment que 
de hair ‘It is a torment to hate.’ O’est un besoin de ’dme que 
d@aimer ‘It is the soul’s need to love.’ C’est se moquer des gens 
(gue) de parler ainsi ‘To speak thus is to ridicule people.’ 


210 SYNTAX. (361, 362. 


361. INFINITIVE AFTER NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. — The 
construction of the infinitive with nouns and adjectives is 
like that of a noun: e.g. le désir de parler ‘the desire of speak- 
ing’; étre prét d parler ‘be ready to speak (for speaking),’ ete. 

It must be observed only that certain adjectives (facile, 
difficile, utile, etc.) denoting ease or adaptiveness require de 
when the infinitive is the logical subject of the sentence, in 
which case they are preceded by an impersonal verb (i est, il 
semble, etc.) ; but otherwise a. — Examples : 


Gb ss: a. 
Il est difficile de résoudre ce Ce probleme est difficile a résou- 
probleme. It is difficult to dre. This problem is hard 


solve this problem. to solve. 
Il est bon de savoir se taire. C’est bon a savoir. That is 
Itis well to know to be silent. well to know. 


Voila une émotion qu’il serait Il éprouva une emotion difficile 
difficile d’exprimer. There a exprimer. He experienced 
is an emotion it would be an emotion difficult to ex- 
difficult to express. press. 


362. A frequent use of the infinitive is a characteristic of 
French writing. Especially, as deviating from English usage, 
should be observed its use after verbs of believing, declaring, 
etc., and after imperatives, when the subject of the dependent 
clause is identical with the subject or object (direct or with a) 
of the leading clause (831). — Ex. Elle croit é6tre aimée ‘She 
believes she is loved.’ Jl assure la connaitre fort bien ‘He 
insists that he knows her very well.’ Je lui pardonne de 
m’avoir oublié ‘I pardon him for having forgotten me.’ Venez 
les prendre! ‘Come and take them!’ etc. cf. 331. 


EXeRcIsE XIX. 


any vr 


363-365. ] VERBS. 211 


PARTICIPLES. 


[363. HISTORY. — The PReseNnT ParticiPLe in French usually comes 
from the Latin present participle (aimant from amant-em); but in some 
instances, as especially after en, it answers to the Latin ablative gerund 
in -ndo (en aimant =in amando), and is then often called a gerund or 
gerundial participle.—The gerund was, naturally enough, left unin- 
flected in French, but the real participle, whether construed as a verb 
or a qualifying adjective, was inflected, agreeing in number (during the 
16th century also in gender) with its noun. This principle, prevailing yet 
in the 17th century, allowed such constructions as Cent fois suppliants 
(Racine) ; Les petits . . . voletants (La Fontaine), etc. But in the same 
century was fixed the present rule, requiring the participle to be uninflected 
when used as such, but to agree with its noun when used as an adjective. 
Traces of the old construction are yet found in a few expressions like 
les allants et venants ; les ayants droit ; etc. 

THE Past Participce is really an adjunct of the predicate qualifying as 
an adjective its subject or object (notice ‘I have bought the book’=‘I 
possess the book, being bought’: etc.). As such it was once in French, 
as in Latin, always made to agree in gender and number with the word 
qualified. Gradually, however, the feeling of its real nature was dimmed; 
and after some discordant usage, characteristic even of the classical 
period of the language (17th cent.), the rules now adhered to were fixed. ] 


364, THE FRENCH PARTICIPLES are in part inflected 
like adjectives, and in part remain invariable. Special rules 
are given below. 


365. PRESENT PARTICIPLE.— The present participle is 
treated as an adjective when it simply qualifies a noun ex- 
pressed or understood; but as an invariable verb-form when 
it is used to denote action or condition. — Ex. 


Usrep as Ang. Usrep as Parric. 
Les méres caressantes gdtent J'ai vu cette mere caressant ses 
leurs enfants. Caressing enfants. I have seen this 


mothers spoiltheirchildren. | mothercaressing herchildren. 
Une femme mourante. A Une femme mourant de faim. 
dying woman. A woman dying of hunger. 


212 SYNTAX. (365-368. 


Ces hommes prévoyants ont su Ces hommes, prévoyant le danger, 


éviter le danger. Those ont su Véviter. These men, 
prudent men knew how to foreseeing the danger, knew 
avoid the danger. how to avoid it. 


Nore 1.— Sometimes usage and good taste alone can decide whether the 
present participle should be considered as a pure adjective or not.. 


[366.] Several adjectives, like charmant ‘charming,’ intéressant ‘inter- 
esting,’ etc., are by origin present participles. Sometimes such adjectives, 
usually preserving the more original spelling, exist at the side of the 
somewhat differently spelled participial forms. E.g. different ‘ different’: 
différant ‘differing’; fatigant ‘tiresome’: fatiguant ‘fatiguing’; negligent 
‘negligent’: negligeant ‘neglecting’; vacant ‘ vacant’: vaquant ‘vacating.’ 


[367.] PRESENT -PARTICIPLE WITH en. — The present 
(i.e. gerundial: 363) participle with en corresponds to an Eng- 
lish gerundial participle with ‘in’ expressing contemporane- 
ousness, ‘ while, although,’ or ‘ by.’ — Ex. 


Il périt en voyant périr ses He perished (in) seeing his 


espérances. hopes perish. 
Forcé & faire la guerre en Driven to make war while (al- 
désirant la paix, illa fit. though) desiring peace, he 
made it. 
On hasarde en voulant trop One risks by wishing to gain 
gagner. too much. . 


Nott 1.— For emphasis tout en is often used: tout en pariant ‘in the 
very act (or even while) speaking.’ 

Nore 2.— The subject of the participle with en must be the same as 
that of the verb of the sentence; Cf. Je /e rencontrai en allant a Uélise 
‘I met him while I was going to church’; but Je le rencontrai allant a 
Péglise ‘I met him going (= on his way to) church.’— Occasional devia- 
tions from this rule, where no mistake can result, are met with. 


368. Past PARTICIPLE.— The general principle which has 
determined the treatment of the past participle now adhered 
to, is that it should agree in gender and number with the word 
it determines, provided that word is already mentioned, and as 


368. ] VERBS. 213 


such present in the mind of the speaker. — Hence the slightly 
modified rule, which is: 

a. Without auxiliary the past participle agrees with the 
noun qualified: e.g. Une fille aimée. 

b. With étre in passive and neuter construction, it agrees 
with the preceding subject: e.g. Hille est aimée; and also with 
a following subject, unless the verb is impersonal, when it is 
invariable (cf. ex. below). 

ce. With avo/r, or étre in reflexive constructions, it agrees 
with a preceding direct object (being uninflected when no 
such object precedes): e.g. Je lai aimée (Uv forla). IIs se 
sont aimés. But J’ai aimé cette fille. Ils se sont blessé la 
main (se dat.). 

Farther examples: 
a. Without auxiliary: 


Ma mére aimée. My beloved mother. 

Les récompenses accordées au Rewards granted to merit 
mérite ne doivent jamais should never be the prize 
étre le prix de Vintrique. of intrigue. 

b. With étre (except in reflexives) : 

Cette nouvelle a été recue. This news is received. 

La ville fut prise. The city was taken. 

Nous sommes aimés de nos We are loved by our parents. 
parents. 


De grands malheurs sont ar- Great misfortunes have hap- 
rivés (but Ii est arrivé de pened. 
grands malheurs). 

Que bénie (though subj. fol- Blessed be the hand that has 
lows) soit la main qui m’a saved me (m.). 


sauve. 
e. With avoir (or étre in reflexives) : 
(Partic. inflected) : (Partic. uninflected) : 


Je Vai vue (or vu). I have Avez-vous vu ma mere. Have 
seen her (o7 him). you seen my mother ? 


214 


(368,369, 


SYNTAX. 
La lettre que jai lue. The J'ai lu cette lettre. I have read 
letter which I have read. this letter. 
Les tragédies quwil a écrites. Il a écrit des tragédies. He has 


The tragedies which he has 
written. 

Les fruits que nous avons eus 
se sont gdtés. The fruits 
we had have been spoiled. 

On fait des choses qu’on a 
crues longtemps impossibles. 
Things long considered im- 
possible are done to-day. 

Quelle réponse vous a-t-on 
faite? What answer has 
one given you? 

La langue qua parlée Cicéron. 
The language that Cicero 
spoke. 

Elle s’est (se acc.) lavée. She 
has washed herself. 


Elle s’est (se acc.) repentie de 
ses fautes. She has re- 
pented of her faults. 

Ils se (ace.) sont emparés de 
la ville. They have taken 
possession (made them- 
selves masters) of the city. 

Lamitié quwelles (que acc.) 
se sont témoignée. The 
friendship they have shown 
each other. 


written tragedies. 


Nous avons eu beaucoup de fruit 
cette année. We have had 
plenty of fruit this year. 

On a cru longtemps ces choses-la 
impossibles. Those things 
have long been thought im- 
possible. 

Quelle nuit a-t-on dansé? What 
night did they dance ? (no 
object). 

L’affaire dont (not direct obj.) 
ils ont parlé. The affair of 
which they spoke. _ 

Elle s’est (se dat.) lavé les mains 
(ace.). She has washed her 
hands. 


‘Elle s’est (se dat.) rappelé ces 


faits (acc.). She remembered 
these facts. 

Ils se (dat.) sont arrogé de 
grands avantages. They have 
arrogated for themselves 
great advantages. 

Elles se (dat.) sont témoigné une 
grande amitié. They have 
shown each other great 
friendship. | 


[869.] Attendu, excepté, passé, supposé, vu, y-(or non) compris are invari- 


able before a noun (cf. 219. 4). 


—S Uh. 


370, 371.] VERBS. 215 
[870.] When after an adverb of quantity no noun is expressed, the past 
participle nevertheless agrees with the noun that is understood. — Beau- 


coup se sont enfuis, mais peu se sont sauvés ‘Many fled, but few were saved.’ 


[371.] In accordance with the main rule, the past participle 
with avoir (or étre in reflexives) is invariable whenever there 
is no preceding direct object. The following distinctions need 
be specially observed : 

a. Que ‘ that’ referring to time or measure, or to the pronominal particle 
en ‘of it, some’ are not direct objects. —Les deux heures que (= pendant 
lesquelles) j’ai dormi ‘The two hours I have slept.’ J/ a des fleurs, et i 
m’en a donné ‘ He has flowers, and he has given me some.’ 

b. If a preceding pronoun is the object of an infinitive following the 


‘participle, the latter is invariable (its real object being the infinitive). — 


Compare: 
a. preced’g pronoun object: 
Les soldats que j’ ai vus enseve- 
lir leur camarade. The sol- 


b. infinitive object: 
Les soldats que j’ ai vu ensevelir. 
The soldiers whom I have 


diers whom I have seen 
burying their comrade. 

La fille que jai entendue 
chanter. The girl I have 
heard singing. 

Je Pai vue peindre ces- tab- 
leaux. I have seen her 
paint these pictures. 


seen buried (lit. the burying 
whom I have seen). 


La chanson que jai. entendu 


chanter. The song I have 
heard sung. 


Ces tableaux je les ai vu pein- 


dre. I have seen these pic- 
tures painted. 


Je les ai laissés partir. 
let them go. 


I Ils se sont l/aissé surprendre. 
They allowed themselves to 
be surprised. 


Note 1.— Fait before an infinitive is always invariable, the two together 
forming one causative. — Je les ai fait sortir ‘I let them go out.’ 

Nore 2.— When after di, pu, voulu an infinitive is understood, they are 
invariable.— Nous lui avons donné tous les secours que nous avons pu (viz. 
lui donner) ‘We have given him all the help we could.’ 

Nore 3.— As éé can be preceded only by avoir, it is always invariable. 


EXERCISE XX. 


216 SYNTAX. (372, 373. 


XVII. 


INDEOLINABLES. 


A. NEGATIONS. 


[372. HISTORY. — Latin non, which in popular usage often supplanted 
ne, has in French become non or ne (older nen) — French ne is always used 
with verbs, though rarely alone. Latin, like other languages, frequently 
emphasized a negation by adding to the negative particle a word of com- 
parison (e.g. non . . . gutta ‘not a drop,’ instead of simply non). This was 
done also in French, and expressions like ‘not move a step’ (pas = Lat. 
passum), ‘not see a point’ (point = Lat. punctum) becoming stereotype, pas 
and po/nt — unless, indeed, supplanted by some other word such as guére 
‘much,’ goutte ‘drop,’ personne, rien, etc. —, gradually, though slowly, came 
to be the regular complement of ne in purely negative expressions (cf. 
Engl. not = nd wiht ‘not a whit’; Germ. nicht=ni wiht). They even assumed, 
themselves, a negative value, being now often used alone as negative 
particles with other words than verbs (in the 17th century also with verbs, 
especially when interrogative, and yet, in popular usage, without distinc- 
tion). The use of me alone as full negative, once common in the 17th 
century, is now confined to a few definite cases described below (875 ete.). 

On the other hand, ne now enters expletively in many expressions, as 
of fear, negated doubt, prevention, and in the second proposition of a 
comparison, etc. (381 etc.). 

This use of ne—often corresponding to the use in English of ‘lest’ 
(quominus) or ‘from’— was in its origin, in most cases, perfectly logical. 
The Latin timeo ne veniat really meant ‘I fear: may he not come’; so like- 
wise impedio (from in and pes) ne veniat originally meant ‘I check him that 
he may not come.’ This Latin use of ne was inherited into French (cf. 
timeo ne veniat = je crains qu'il ne vienne; impedio ne (or quominus) veniat = 
jempéche qwil ne vienne). But the development of that use in French is 
often anomalous and even inconsistent, and the force of the original nega- 
tion is no longer felt. The expletive use of ne, however, is being more 
and more neglected in popular usage. | 


373. Non (or non pas), pas. — Except in connection with 
verbs, the purely negative particle is in French non (or, with 


373, 874.] INDECLINABLES. 217 


adversative emphasis, non pas, non point). Exceptionally pas 
(or point) is used, chiefly in answers for ‘not,’ followed by 
another word. — Ex. 


Viendrez-vous ? Non. Shall you come? No. 3 

Vous viendrez, n’est-ce pas? You will come, will you not? 
Non pas. No (I will not). 

Sage ou non. Wise or not. 


Sa cruauté et non (or non pas, His cruelty and not his pride. 
non point) son orgueil. 

A-t-il des livres? Pas un Has he books? Not one (not 
(pas beaucoup, pas du tout). | many, none at all). 


Nore 1.— Non is often preceded by que (que non, elliptically 
for a whole clause introduced by que, and translatable by ‘ no,’ 
or ‘not,’ or a whole phrase). — Ex. Je dis gue non ‘I say no.’ 
Je crois gue non ‘I believe not.’ Je gage gue non ‘I wager 
that it is not so.’ 


Nore 2.—JIn popular usage pas alone is often the negative even with 
verbs; rarely in literary style: Craignez-vous pas le fer? (V. Hugo). 


374. Ne... pas (or point). — With verbs ‘not’ is in 
French usually expressed by two words, viz. the negative ne 
(n’) ‘not’ and the adverb pas or (optionally, though rather 
more emphatically) po/snt. 

These words are placed one on each side of the personal 
verb-form — ne before it (preceding its object-pronoun, if there 
be one), and pas, point after it. Usually both precede a 
simple infinitive. An object-pronoun is then placed after or 
(less often) between them. — Ex. | 


Je ne parle pas (or point). I do not speak. 
Je ne lui parle pas (or point). I do not speak to him. 
Je ne le lui dis pas. I do not tell him about it. 


Je nai pas parle. I have not spoken. 


218 SYNTAX. (374-376. 

Je ne lui ai point parle. I have not spoken to him. 

Il faut ne pas lui (or ne lui It is necessary not to (You 
pas) parler. must not) speak to him. 


Nore 1.— If a personal verb is followed by an infinitive, the negatives 
are arranged with the verb they actually determine. — Ex. Je ne puis 
(pas) le faire ‘I cannot do it.’ Je puis ne pas le faire ‘I am capable of 
not doing it.’ 

Nott 2.—In questions pas is used only when an affirmative reply is 
expected, but point without distinction. — Ex. C’est vous, n’est-ce pas? 


375. Ne UseD ALONE. —‘Not’ is expressed by ve alone, 
without any complement-word, in several cases, as explained 
below. 

A. — Ne is used alone in independent clauses: 


[376.] More or less optionally, with pouvo/r ‘be able,’ savoir 
‘know,’ cesser ‘cease,’ oser ‘dare,’ bouger ‘budge.’ Regularly 
with savo/r in sense of ‘can’; and in a few set phrases like 
n’importe ‘no matter,’ ne vous en déplaise ‘ may it not displease 
you,’ @ Dieu ne plaise ‘God forbid,’ n’avoir garde ‘not have 
the inclination (not care, not wish, be far from).’ — Ex. 


Je ne puis (or Je ne peux I cannot believe it. 
pas) le croire. 
Ii ne peut (pas) tarder. He cannot delay. 
Je ne sais (pas) qu’en penser I don’t know what to think of it. 
Je ne sais (or sawrais) m’ex- I cannot express myself differ- 


primer autrement. ently. 

Je ne saurais vous le dire. I can (could) not tell you. 

Il nose (pas) revenir. He dares not return. 

Il n’a garde de tromper, il est He is too honest a man to think 
trop honnéte homme. of cheating. 


Norr. — Ordinarily pas is omitted with pouvoir ete. when the negation 
is unemphatic and followed by an infinitive. In popular usage the omis- 
sion is always rare (e.g. Je ne puis more classical than Je ne peux pas). 

Sometimes ne occurs alone by arbitrary option. 


377-379.] INDECLINABLES. 219 
[377.] After gue and (optionally) gu/ introducing rhetorical 


questions or exclamations. — Ex. 


Que n’étes vous arrivé plus t6t? Why have you not come before? 
Ah, que n’étais-je la! Ah, why was I not there! 
Qui de nous n’a (pas) ses Who of us has not his faults? 


défauts ? 
Qui ne Paimerait ? 


Who would not love her ? 


B. — We is used alone in dependent clauses : 


[378.1 Usually when the leading verb is itself negative or 
impliedly so (as with sans, peu, impossible, etc., or in questions 


of appeal). 


The dependent verb (usually in the subjunctive : 


327, 329) can then often in English be construed affirm- 
atively with ‘but,’ ‘but that.’ — Ex. 


Il est impossible quwil ne 
vienne. 


Il ny a personne qui ne le 
sache. 


Je ne connais personne qui ne 
fasse quelquefois des fautes. 

J’ai peu @amis qui ne soient 
les vétres. 

Y at-il personne dont elle ne 
médise ? 

Avez-vous un ami qui ne soit 
aussi le mien ? 


Il ne tient pas & mot que cela 
ne se fasse. 


It is impossible that he should 
not come (= He cannot but 
come). 

There is nobody that does not 
know it (= There is none but 
knows it). 

I know no one who does not 
sometimes make a mistake. 

I have few (= not many) friends 
that are not yours. 

Is there anybody whom she does 
not slander? 

Have you a friend who is not 
mine also? (= but that he is 
mine also?) 

It is not my fault if that does 
not happen. 


[379.] After a leading clause expressing a care or effort 
(that something may ‘not’ take place). — Ex, 


220 SYNTAX. [379-382. 


Je prendrai garde qwil ne I shall take care that he does 


tombe. not fall. 

Soyez attentif qwil ne se See to it that he does not 
blesse. wound himself. 
[380.] Usually in the expression s/ . . . ne ‘if not, unless’; and when 


by inversion sz is omitted (as in n’éta/t ‘were it not for’: etc.).— Ex. 


Il serait tombé si je ne Pavais (or He would have fallen, had I not sup- 


Peusse: 332) retenu. ported him. 

N’espérez pas obtenir lestime des Do not hope to gain the esteem of 
gens de bien si vous ne remplissez honest people, if you do not (unless 
vos devoirs. you) fulfil your duties. 

Je serais riche, n’étaient les impots. I should be rich were it not for the 

taxes. 

N’eut été la crainte de surprise, je Had it not been for (But for) fear 
n’aurais pas quitté cet endroit. of surprise, I should not have left 

this place. 


381. Ne Usep EXPLETIVELY.—In dependent clauses in- 
troduced by the conjunction que (or a conjunction-phrase in 
que), French often has ne where English has no negation. 
Que . . . ne is then variously rendered (‘that,’ ‘lest,’ ‘from,’ 
- or ‘than,’ etc.), as illustrated by the various sentences below, 
382-7. 

Usage is not consistent with regard to this expletive use 
of ne. In the following cases, however, the expletive ne is 
generally introduced : 


[382.] After empécher ‘prevent’ and éviter ‘avoid’ before 
a personal verb-form (always a subjunctive: 325). — Ex. 


J’empécherai quwil ne vienne I shall prevent his coming. (I 
(but Je Vempécherai de shall prevent him from com- 
venir). ing). 

Evitez qvil ne vous parle. Avoid his speaking to you. 


Nore.— Both are exceptionally construed without ne (empécher chiefly 
when negative or interrogative, or in the infinitive). 





q 
4 


—-883,] INDECLINABLES. 221 
[383.] After expressions of fear, doubt, or denial when the 
action of the dependent verb (then in the subjunctive: 325, 
327) is viewed rather as merely probable or possible than 
as improbable or certain. 

That is, usually, after expressions of fear or apprehension [craindre, 
appréhender, trembler, redouter, avoir peur, de peur, de crainte, etc.) when 
affirmative or interrogative without implied negation, 
and, inversely, after expressions of doubt and denial [douter (il est 
douteux, il y a du doute, etc.), désespérer, nier, contester, disconvenir] when 
negative or interrogative with implied negation. 


Examples. 


Action probable or possible : 
Je crains (J’appréhende, J’ ai 
peur) qwil ne vienne. I 
fear (etc.) he may come. 
Avez-vous peur qwil ne vous 
trompe? Are you afraid 
he may deceive you? 


N’ appréhendez-vous pas qwil 
ne vous trompe? Are younot 
afraid lest he deceive you? 

Je ne doute (désespére) pas 
qwil ne réussisse. I have 
no doubt (etc.) he may or 
will succeed. 


Action improbable or certain : 

Je ne crains pas (etc.) gwil 
vienne. Iam not afraid that 
he will come. 

Pouvez-vous craindre qwil vous 
trompe? Can you fear (= 
You cannot fear, can you?) 
that he should deceive you? 

Je nappréhende point qwil me 
trompe. I am not afraid he 
will deceive me. ’ 

Je doute (désespere) qwil réus- 
sisse. I doubt whether he 
will succeed. 


Doutez-vous qwil ne réussisse? Doutez-vous qwil soit malade ? 


Do you doubt whether he 
will succeed ? 


Do you doubt that he is 
sick? (which he really is). 


Je ne nie pas qwil ne soit trés .Je ne nie pas que vous soyez 


éloguent. I don’t deny that 
he may be (or his being) 
very eloquent. 


malade? I do not deny that 
you are (or your being) sick. 


Je nie que cela soit. I deny that 
that can be so. 


222 SYNTAX. [383-386. 

Je ne disconviens pas que cela Ne doutez-vous pas qwil en 
ne soit ainsi. I don’t deny vienne & bout? Don’t you 
that that may not be so. doubt that he will succeed ? 


Nore. — Ne is sometimes used after, avant que in sense of ‘lest’ and 
sans que, but this construction is becoming antiquated. Que used for sans 
que usually requires ne [e.g. Je ne puis sortir de la maison, qu = ne le sache 
(or sans qwil le sache)]. 


[884.] After // s’en faut used negatively or with peu. — Ex. 


Ti ne s’en faut pas beaucoup quvil ne He is not far from being his brother’s 
soit l’égal de son frere. equal. 
Peu s’en est fallu qwil ne se soit tué. He came very near killing himself. 


[385.] With compound tenses after depuis que or que 
‘since’ (que... ne also, by beginning with the dependent 
clause, translatable as a negative). 


Comment vous étes-vous porté How have you been ‘since’ I 


depuis que je ne vous ai vu? saw you? 
Il y a trois mois que je neVai It is three months ‘since’ I 
rencontré. met him (or I have not met 


him these three months). 
Il y avait dix ans que nous We had not seen each other for 
ne nous étions vus. ten years. 


Norre.—If the verb is in a simple tense, a full negation (ne . . . pas 
etc.) is used. — Ex. J/ y a trois mois que nous ne nous parlons pas ‘ We have 
not spoken to each other for three months.’ 


[386.] With a personal verb-form in the second clause of a 
comparison of difference (i.e. a comparison such that the second 
term could be construed negatively if placed first). — Thus: 


With ne: Without ne: 

Il est plus riche qwil neVétait. Il est plus riche qwil était. He 
He is richer than he was is yet richer than he was 
(ie. he was not rich, he is (ie. he was rich, and he is 
better off now). richer yet now). 





386-388. ] 


Il nest pas plus riche qwil ne 
Vétait. He is not richer 
than he was (and he was 
not rich). 

Il est moins coupable qwil ne 
le parait. He is less guilty 
than he appears [i.e. he does 
not appear so little guilty 
(free of guilt) as he is]. 

Il parle autrement qwil n’ agit. 
He speaks otherwise than 
he acts. 

Pourrai-je devenir plus fort 
que je ne le suis? Is there 
any prospect for me of be- 
coming stronger than I am ? 


INDECLINABLES. 


223 


Il nest pas plus riche qu il I était. 


He is not richer than he was 
(i.e. he was rich). 


Il nest pas moins coupable qwil 


le parait. He is not less 
guilty than he appears (i.e. 
he appears guilty, and is no 
less so). 


Il ne parle pas autrement qwil 


‘agit. He does not speak 
otherwise than he acts. 


Puis-je étre plus heureux que je 


le suis! Can I be happier 
than I am! 


Norr.— Aside from pure comparatives, the comparative words autre, 
autrement, plutét, and plus tét may thus be construed with ne. 


[387.] After & moins que ‘unless,’ or gue used for & moins 


que. — Ex. 


Je ne le ferai pas & moins que 
vous ne le fassiez. 

Le lion wattaque jamais 
Vhomme & moins quwil ne 
soit provoqué. 

il wen parle pas qwil n’y soit 
forcé. 


I shall not do it unless you do 


1t. 


The lion never attacks man, 


unless it be provoked to 
anger. 


He does not speak about it un- 


less he be forced to do so. 


388. OTHER NEGATIONS WITH VERBS. — Other negations 


than those described above usually consist of ne with (a) an 
adverb or (b) indefinite pronoun. 

Their arrangement is like that of ne... pas, except that 
the pronouns take their usual place, according to their syn- 
tactical relation (rien, however, only as subject); and that only 
ne plus, ne rien may precede a simple infinitive. 


224 SYNTAX. [388, 389. 


A list of the more common of these negations is given 
below : 


a. ne with adverbs: rs 
ne .. jamais never Ii ne parle jamais. He never speaks. 
ne... guére oe ca Ii n’a guere parlé. He scarcely spoke. 
scarcely 
ne. . plus} no more Il ne faut plus chanter. You must 
= no longer sing no more. 
ne. . gue (cf. f nothing but Je ne connais que mon pays. I know 
note 2) - only my country only. 
ne . . aucunement ) not at all Je ne lui en veux aucunement. I 
ne ..nullement J) nowise nowise wish him any harm. 


ne... ni etc. cf. 390. 
b. ne with pronouns: 


Ex. 
ne.. ae a any Je my ai nul intérét. I have no 
ne... nul no interest in it. 
ne . . personne nobody Il n’a vu personne. He has seen 
nobody. 

ne . . quelconque none Il n’a parlé a qui que ce soit. He has 
ne .. gui que ce soit) soever not spoken to anybody (soever). 
ne .. rien nothing Il narien vu. He has seen nothing. 

Nore 1.— Jamais, plus, aucunement, nullement, aucun, nul, personne, and 


rien often, by ellipsis, have a negative meaning without ne, when the verb 
is omitted and in certain phrases. —Ex. Viendrez-vous? Jamais ‘Shall 
youcome? Never.’ Plus de larmes, plus de chagrins ‘No more tears, no 
more sorrows’; ete. Cf. 112. 4. . 

Nore 2.—‘ Only’ is expressed by ne . . gue, or by seu/ement. Hither may 
limit an object or predicate adjunct (Je ne connais gue mon pays or Je 
connais seulement mon pays. Seulement must be used to limit the subject 
(Les bons seulement sont heureux) or the predicate (Regardez seulement), 
and before que (il dit seulement qwil viendrait). Seulement may also serve 
to strengthen ne . . que (Vouz n’avez seulement qu’a me dire une parole), 


[389.] Brin ‘mote,’ goutte ‘drop,’ mie ‘crumb,’ mot ‘ word’ occur (in sense 
of rien) as complement to ne in a few set phrases. — Ex. Je n’y vois goutte 
‘I see nothing in it.’ Jl ne dit mot ‘He does not say a word (He says 
nothing).’ 





Ine .. pas plus means ‘not any more’ (with reference to quantity or 
comparison), 





390. ] INDECLINABLES. 225 


390. Use OF n/.— The expression ‘neither... nor’ when 
determining other words than a personal verb is rendered 
by n/ .. . n/, arranged as in English; and if there is a verb 
in the sentence, ne is placed before it: e.g. Mi mon pere ni 
ma mere (ne viendront) ‘Neither my father nor my mother 
(will come).’ 3 

Determining directly personal verbs, ‘neither ... nor’ is 
rendered by ne... a/ ne: e.g. Il ne lit ni n’écrit ‘He neither 


reads nor writes.’ 
Further examples : 


Qui Va fait? Niluini moi. Who has done it? Neither he 


nor I. 

Ni lui ni moi ne viendrons. Neither he nor I shall come. 

Ii n’a ni freres ni seurs. He has neither brothers nor 
sisters. 

Il ne sait ni lire ni écrire. He can neither read nor write. 

Je ne Vai ni dit ni pensé. I have neither said so nor 
thought so. 

Je ne veux ni qwil lise ni I will not allow him either to 

 qwil écrive. read or write. 

Il ne mange ni ne boit. He neither eats nor drinks. 


Je ne vous loue ni ne vous I neither praise nor blame you. 
blame. 

Je ne veux, ni ne dois, ni ne I neither wish nor ought to 
puis vous obéir. obey you, nor can I do it. 


Nore 1.—‘ Nor’ used without preceding ‘neither’ is rendered (a) before 
a verb at the beginning of a clause by et ne: e.g. I/ ne devrait pas le faire, 
et il ne le fera pas, ‘ He ought not to do it, nor will he do it’; but (b) within 
a clause before other words than personal verbs by n/, and (c) before per- 
sonal verbs by ni ne: e.g. Je ne l’ai pas dit ni pensé (or ni ne Vai pensé), 
‘I have not said it, nor (have I) thought it.’ 

Nore 2.—WMi ... non plus is used in the sense of ‘nor .. . either’ 
where the verb is understood. — Ex.. J/ ne le fera pas, ni moi non plus ‘ He 
will not do it, nor I either.’ Mi mon frére non plus ‘Nor my brother either.’ 





Exercise XXI. 


—_— 


226 SYNTAX. [391-394. 


B. OTHER INDECLINABLES. 


391. The following short remarks about the use and mean- 
ing of some of the indeclinables that have not already been 
sufficiently described in the preceding part of the grammar 
may here be added. 

ADVERBS. 

392. POSITION OF ADvERBS. — Adverbs, unless introduc- 
ing the sentence (416. b), follow a personal verb-form, and 
an infinitive, with some exceptions as described under 411. — 
Ex. Jl parle souvent ‘He often speaks.’ J1-a souvent parlé 
‘He has often spoken’: ete. 


«3 


DISTINCTIONS OF CERTAIN ADVERBS. 


393. Aussi, si ‘as, so,’ autant, tant ‘as (so) much or many.’ 
— Aussi, autant are used in comparisons generally ; si, tant only 
in negative comparisons, or where no comparison is involved. 
— Ex. 


Elle est aussi grande que lui. She is as tall as he. 
Elle nest pas si (or aussi) She is not so tall as he. 
grande que lui. | 
Elle est si belle, si bonne. She is so pretty, so kind. 
Henri possede autant de cou- Henry has as much courage, 
rage, mais pas tant (or but not so much prudence, as 


autant) de prudence que John. 
Jean. 

Je Vai tant prié qwil m’en a I prayed him so much that he 
accordé la permission. granted me the permission. 


Nore 1.— Tant mieux means ‘so much the better,’ and tant pis ‘so 
much the worse.’ 

Nore 2.— Tant introducing a clause is emphatic, corresponding to ‘so, 
so much’ (usually in same position): e.g. Tant il marchait rapidement ‘So 
rapidly did he walk.’ 


394. Au moins, du moins ‘at least. — Au moins denotes the 
lowest limit or estimate, du moins is equivalent to ‘however,’ 
‘at any rate’; but in ordinary usage no distinction is made. — Ex, 





394-398. ] INDECLINABLES. 227 


Il a au moins cent milie He has at least a hundred 


dollars. thousand dollars. 
S’il ne peut pas le faire, il If he cannot do it, he should at 
devrait au moins en parler. least (for the least) speak of it. 
S’il nest pas riche, tl a du If he is not rich, he has at least 
moins de quoi vivre. (however) enough to live. 


395. Au reste, du reste ‘as for the rest, otherwise, besides, 
moreover.’ — Aw reste is equivalent to ‘besides,’ and du reste to 
‘otherwise’; but in ordinary usage no distinction is made. — Ex. 
Au reste je vous dirat que cela Besides (Moreover) I will tell 


west pas vrai. you that is not true. 
Ii est capricieux, du reste il He is capricious, otherwise he 
est honnéte homme. is an honest man. 


396. Plus, davantage ‘more.’ — Plus is used both absolutely 
and to modify another word. Davantage is used absolutely, 
and usually only at the end of a clause. Either may be 
strengthened by bien or encore. — Ex. 

Cela me plait bien plus (or That pleases me far more. 


davantage). 

La paresse est plus dangereuse Laziness is more dangerous 
que la vanité. than vanity. 

La vanité est dangereuse, mais Vanity is dangerous, but lazi- 
la. paresse Vest dayantage. ness is more So. 


Nore.— In archaic style davantage is often followed by que. 


397. Oui, si ‘yes.’ — Oui is the affirmative and si the cor- 
rective answer to a question (si being used where a negative 
answer is expected). Si may be strengthened by fait. — Ex. 
Y avez vous été? ‘Were you there?’ Oui, monsieur ‘Yes, 
sir’ Vous n’y avez pas été? ‘You were not there?’ SV (or 
Si fait) ‘Yes (yes indeed).’ 


398. Quand, quant. — Quand ‘when’ is an adverb of time 
or a conjunction; quant ‘in regard to, as to, as for’ is always 
followed by a (e.g. Quant & moi ‘as for me’). 


228 SYNTAX. [399-403. 


399. Tout a coup means ‘suddenly’ and tout d’un coup 


‘in one stroke, all at once.’ —Ex. Tout a coup il disparut ‘He 
suddenly disappeared.’ I1 perdit sa fortune tout d’un coup ‘He 
lost his fortune in one stroke.’ 


400. Comme and gue often introduce an exclamation. 
French then, unlike English, places the word qualified by these 
adverbs at the end of the clause. —Ex. Comme elle (or Qu’elle) 
est belle ‘How beautiful she is!’ 


CONJUNCTIONS. 

401. £t...et means ‘both... and’; so/t... soft (or ou) 
‘whether (either) ... or’; so/t que. . . soit gue (or ou que) 
‘whether . . . or.” — Ex. . 

Et lui et moi. Both he and I. 

Soit clémence, soit (or ow) Either (whether) clemency or — 
justice. justice. 

Soft gu’il vive, soit gu’il (or ow Whether he lives or dies I shall 
qwil) meure je le verrat. see him. 


402. S/.—The use of mood and tense after si has been 
described already in the preceding (cf. 304. c, 308, 311, 314, 
332). Below (403. b) will be noted that que (with the sub- 
junctive) is often used instead of a repeated si. 


403. Que ‘that.’ —a. Que can not, as often ‘that’ in Eng- 
lish, be omitted, but must be repeated at the head of each 
proposition. — Ex. Je crois que votre cause est bonne et qu’elle 
va prospérer ‘I believe (that) your cause is good, and will 
prosper.’ 

b. Que is often used for ‘when’ after an expression of time 
or a negative; and also to supply a comp. conjunction or con- 
junction-phrase in que, or si, orcomme. (Cf. also 323. A. b.)—Ex. 


Le roi n’était pas mort gu’on The king was not dead, since he 
(=puis gu’on) le vit. was seen. 





a ee a ee ee a a 


403, 404.] 


Lorsqu’on a des dispositions et 
gu’on veut étudier, on fait 
des progres rapides. 

A moins qu’on ne soit diligent 
et gu’on ne prenne de la 
peine, on ne réussira pas. 

Quand on est riche et gu’on est 
généreux, on ne manque pas 
@amis. 

Si vous avez des amis et gue 
vous désiriez les conserver, 
rendez-vous digne de leur 
estime. 

A peine fus-je arrivé guil 
vint me voir. 

Je ne serai point content que 
(=a moins que) je ne le 
sache. 

Le train n’ était & peine passé 
gu’il vint. 


INDECLINABLES. 


229 


When one has the ability and 
is desirous to study, one 
makes rapid progress. 

Unless one be diligent and (un- 
less one) take trouble, he 
will not succeed. 

When one is both rich and 
generous one does not lack 
friends. 

If you have friends and wish 
to retain them, render your- 
self worthy of their esteem. 


Scarcely had I arrived when he 
called on me. 

I shall not be satisfied unless 
I know it. 


The train had hardly started 
when he came. 


ce. Cf. also for the use of gue in comparison 84, as an expletive 266 a. 


and b. note, and in exclamation 400. 


404. Quand, lorsque ‘when.’ — Quand is said to refer to 


time in a more general way than lorsque. 


In actual usage, 


however, little distinction is made, except that quand alone can 
be used as an interrogative adverb, and that lorsque must be 
used with a historical present. — Ex. 


J’avais quinze ans lorsque je I was fifteen years of age when 


perdis mon pere. 

Ii est bon Wétudier quand on 
est jeune. 

Quand (adv.) étes-vous arrivé ? 

Lorsque enfin les blessures de 
ces infortunés s’amélio- 
rent, ils périssent faute de 
subsistance. 


I lost my father. 

It is well to study when one is 
young. 

When did you arrive ? 

When finally the wounds of 
these unfortunate men are 
healing, they perish for want 
of food. 


230 SYNTAX. 3 [405-401 


Norr.— Quand and lorsque also denote condition, with reference tc 


time: Cf. Faites-le sj vous venez (implying doubt), guand vous viendrez (im 

plying probability), /orsque vouz viendrez (implying almost certainty). 

405. Parce que ‘because,’ puisque ‘since.’ — Parce qu 
introduces the cause of what is stated in the main clause; 
puisque refers to it as a consequence. — Ex. 

Je le veux parce que cela est I wish it, because it is right. 
juste. : 

Je le veux puisgue cela est I wish it since it is right. 
juste. . 
Notre.— Par ce que means ‘from what, by that which’: Je le sais par 

ce qu’il m’a dit ‘I know it from what he told me.’ 

406. Pendant que, tandis gue ‘while.’ — Both denote simul- 
taneousness of action, but tandis que is usually equivalent to 
‘while on the contrary.’ — Ex. 

Il entra pendant que je dor- He entered while I was sleep- 


mais. ing. 
Je me consume de chagrin tan- I pine away with grief while 
dis gue vous vous amusez. you are amusing yourself. 


EXERCISE XXII. 


——>——— 
XVIII. 
ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENTENCE. 


[407. HISTORY. — Latin, being able to express the relation of words 
to each other by their form, possessed far greater freedom in the arrange- 
ment of the sentence than French, where inflection 1s largely replaced by 
fixity of position. In Latin, for instance, pater amat jilium, or filum amat 
pater, or amat pater filium were equally allowable, while French, unable to 
distinguish between the nominative and accusative, except by their relative 
position, allows only le pére aime le ils. 

This transition to a fixed state of position was accomplished only gradu- 
ally. Old French, retaining much of the Latin inflection, also allowed 








ee re eel a ae a 


407-411.] ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENTENCE. 231 


much of the Latin freedom of position. Even yet some traces of an 
earlier independence are preserved, especially as regards certain modifying 
words, and much more in poetry than in prose. But the common language 
is tending more and more towards rigorous uniformity. ] 


408. The arrangement of the sentence is in French, as in 
English, either direct or inverted. 


409. DirEcT ARRANGEMENT.—The direct arrangement, 
being used for the most part in affirmative and negative state- 
ments, is: 1. the subject with its modifiers, 2. the predicate 
with its modifiers. The relative position of the modifying 
words, as far as it is peculiar to French, is described below. 

Adjectives, pronouns, and negative particles. — The arrange- 
ment of adjectives, conjunctive personal pronouns or pro- 
nominal particles, and negative particles is described already 
in the preceding (adj. 221-3; pron. 102, 254-6; neg. 374, 388). 


[410.] Direct and indirect object. — The direct object, unless 
decidedly longer than the indirect, usually precedes it. An 
emphasized object, however, comes last, whether direct or 
indirect. — Ex. 


Il inspire le courage & ses He inspires his soldiers with 


soldats. courage. 
Il faut inspirer aux enfants Children should be inspired 
Vamour de Dieu. with love to God. 


Norre.— Tout and rien, when used alone as objects, often precede an 
infinitive and a participle. — Ex. 


Pour ne vous rien celer. To conceal nothing from you. 
Elle croit avoir tout fait. She thinks she has done everything. 


[411.] Adverbs and adverbial phrases. —'They are arranged 
as follows: 

a. They usually follow the personal verb-form (i.e. the 
simple verb or the auxiliary). But long adverbs or adverbial 
phrases, and adverbs of relative time (hier, demain, etc.) follow 
the past participle of a compound tense. — Ex. 


232 SYNTAX. (411-414. 


Il parle souvent. He often speaks. 

Il m’a souvent parle. He has often spoken to me. 

On met ordinairement l’ad- We usually place the adverb 
verbe apres le verbe qwil after the verb it modifies. 
modifie. 

J’y ai été guelquefois. I have been there sometimes. 

Je lai fait a la hate. I did it in haste. 

Il est arrivé hier. He arrived yesterday. 


Norr.— The position before or after the participle is often optional, 
the latter being rather more emphatic. But many common adverbs like 
déja, souvent, toujours, bientét, etc. always precede. 


b. Long adverbs and adverbial phrases follow an infinitive. 


But several short adverbs like bien, mieux, mal, pis, trop, and — 


usually adverbs of negation (374, 388) precede it. — Ex. 

Il faut, écrire tendrement. One (or I) must write tenderly. 
Il s’efforce de bien écrire. He makes an effort to write well. 
Vous ne pouvez mieux faire. | You can not do better. 


c. Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time, unless very long, usually 
precede those of place; and both are followed by other adverbs. — Ex. 


Qu’il vienne a Pinstant au palais. Let him come instantly to the palace. 
Marchons maintenant (or présente- Let us now walk with assurance. 
ment) avec assurance. 


[412.| Prepositions precede the words to which they belong, 
and can never as in English by ellipsis (omission of a relat. or 
interrog. pronoun) be placed at the end of a clause: e.g. La 
maison de laquelle (or dont) il parle ‘The house he speaks of.’ 

Nore. — Exceptionally dyrant (by origin a participle) follows its noun: 
e.g. sa vie durant ‘ during his life.’ In adverbial use (as in on s’éleva contre) 
prepositions are construed as adverbs. 

413. INVERTED ARRANGEMENT.— The inverted arrange- 
ment, requiring the subject to follow the verb, is used in the 
cases described below. 

[414.] In questions, the personal subject-pronouns and also 
on and ce follow the verb. Other subjects usually (cf. note) 





or 





414-416.] ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENTENCE. 233 


precede the verb, being repeated after it in the form of a 
personal pronoun. Or the question is introduced by the 
paraphrase Est-ce que ‘is it (the case) that’ (152) with direct 
arrangement. — Ex. 


Est-il venu ? Has he come ? 
Votre frére est-i] venu ? or Est- Has your brother come? 
ce que votre frére est venu ? 


Norr. — When the verb is preceded by an interrogative particle or by 
its object, the subject-noun may in many cases optionally be placed after 
its verb. —Ex. Ou est votre frere? (or Ou votre frere est-il?) ‘Where is your 
brother?’ Combien vaut cela? (or Combien cela vaut-il?) ‘How much is 
that worth?’ Quel livre a votre frére? (or Quel livre votre frére a-t-il?) 
‘What book has your brother?’ Que veut cette femme? (or Cette femme que 
veut-elle?) ‘What does the woman want?’ Qu’acet homme? (or Cet homme 
qwa-t-il?) ‘What is the matter with this man?’ 


[415.] In optative or conditional phrases not introduced 
by a conjunction, the subject follows the verb. — Ex. 


Puisse-t-i/ réussir ! May he succeed! 

Me préservent les cieux Wun Heaven preserve me from such 
tel malheur ! a calamity ! 

Je le ferai, dit-il m’en cotter I shall do it, even if it should 
la vie. cost me my life. 

Ils auraient résisté, n’edt é&é They would have resisted, but 
le canon. for the cannon. 


[416.] When another word than the subject introduces the 
sentence, the subject is frequently (though often more or less 
optionally) placed after its verb. Thus: 

a. The noun-subject frequently follows its verb when the 
phrase begins with (1.) a word introducing an indirect question 
(qui, ce que, comment, etc.) or an indefinite concession (qui que, 
quel que, tout que, etc.) ;—(2.) an adverb or adverbial expression 
of time, space, or circumstance (alors, ict, ainsi, au milieu, etc.) ; 
— (3.) the relative que, quel, or ow ; — (4.) a predicate adjective 
(especially tel). — Ex. 


934 SYNTAX. ) (416. 


i 

Dites-moi qui sont ces jeunes Tell me who these young people 
gens. are. 

Je lui demandai comment lui I asked him how this unex- 
était advenu ce secours pected assistance was ren- 
inattendu. dered him. 

Quel que soit cet homme, il Whoever this man be, he is not 
nest pas poli. polite. 

Quelque habile que soit votre However skilful your sister be, 
sur, elle ne réussira pas. she will not succeed. 

2. 

Alors commenga une Jutte Then a terrible struggle ensued 
terrible. (or Then began etc.). 

Ici fleurit jadis une ville Here flourished formerly a rich 
opulente. city. 

A cété de mon frere était ma Beside my brother was my 
se@ur. sister. 

De 1a dépend votre salut. On that depends your safety. 

3. 

La loi permet souvent ce que The law often permits what 
défend I’honneur. honor forbids. 

J’ai vu la place ou est dressé I have seen the place where the 
l’échafaud. scaffold is erected. 

: A, 

Telle était la fierté de ce Such was the: pride of this 
peuple. people. : 

Humbles furent @abord les Humble were at first the 
pouvoirs. powers. 


b. The pronoun-subject commonly follows its verb when 
the phrase is introduced by certain adverbs or adverbial phrases, 
especially such as contain a preposition or end in -ment ( peine, 
au moins, du moins, en vain, rarement, etc., and also others, 
as aussi, encore, peut-étre). Other subjects than personal 
pronouns in similar cases precede their verb, being repeated, 








416-419.] PUNCTUATION AND USE OF CAPITALS. 235 


however, as in questions (414), in the form of a personal pro-— 
noun placed after the verb. — Ex. 


A peine étaisje arrivé qu'elle Hardly had I arrived when she 


entra. entered. 
A peine mon frére était-i/ Hardly had my brother arrived 
arrivé qu'elle entra. when she entered. 


En vain (or Vainement) Paije In vain did I say so. 
dit. 
Peut-étre pourrai-je un jour Perhaps one day I shall be able 


vous étre utile. to serve you. 
Peut-étre mon pére pourra-t-i/ Perhaps one day my father may 
un jour vous étre utile. be able to serve you. 


[417.] In phrases like dit-i/, s’éeria-t-i/, etc., inserted in 
the middle or at the end of a quotation, the subject follows its 
verb, as usually in English. — Ex. Consolez-vous, dit-il, tout ira 
bien. Elle est morte, s’écria-t-i]. Bien, répondit le roi. 


Nore.— Such interjected phrases are in French very common, and 
sometimes used where dit etc. has already a subject: e.g. Alors le sublime 
orateur, élevant sa voix, Dieux protecteurs d’ Athénes s’écria-t-il, etc. 


[418.] Exceptionally, the verb itself introduces an affirmative state- 
ment. — Ex. Vinrent ensuite deux cents hommes armeés ‘ Finally came two 
hundred armed men.’ 

Poetry allows much more freedom of arrangement than prose: cf. 426. 


nen priarinsin 
XIX. 
PUNCTUATION AND USE OF CAPITALS. 


419. PUNCTUATION.—The rules of punctuation are so 
similar in French and English that any difference of usage in 
special cases depends rather on individual option or preference 
than on difference of principle. 


Nore. — French, more consistently than English, requires a colon before 
any direct quotation, 


236 SYNTAX. [420, 421. 


420. CaPiTAL LETTERS. — The rules for the use of capital © 
initials are, with few exceptions, the same in French and 
English, a certain option being, in certain cases, reserved in 
either. French, however, contrary to English, requires a small 
initial : 

a, In adjectives denoting nation, party, or sect, and also in 
names of languages. — Ex. un livre francais ‘a French book’; 
‘un prétre catholique ‘a Catholic priest’; le francais ‘the French 
language’; Vanglais ‘the English language.’ 

Norr.— Nouns denoting nation, party, or sect usually have a capital 
initial, though usage varies when they refer to individuals.— Ex. Un 


Frangais (or frangais) ‘a Frenchman’; les Frangais ‘the French’ (viz. 
people) ; les Protestants ‘the Protestants’; les Gibelins ‘ the Ghibellines.’: 


b. In names of the months and of the days of the week. — 
Ex. mai, juin; lundi, mardi. 
c. In the pronoun je ‘I.’ 


prea eS aae 


XX. 


FRENCH VERSE. 


421. GENERAL CHARACTER. — The construction of French 
verse differs from that of either classical (Greek and Latin) 
or Germanic. 

” The essential element of Classical verse was rhythm (fv60s 
‘regular movement’) as determined by a regular recurrence, 
at short and measured intervals, of a syllable with ‘musical’ 
stress (ictus, entirely independent of the word or sentence- 
accent), intervening syllables being arranged in various though 
definite order, with regard to their quantity. — The chief ele- 
ment of modern Germanic verse (English included) is, likewise, 
rhythm, but a rhythm which, though largely borrowed from 
classical models, is determined not by musical accent, but by 








421.] FRENCH VERSE. 237 


the natural accent of the words in the verse, and not by the 
quantity of intervening unaccented syllables but, prevailingly 
at least, by their number. To this essential requirement of 
accentual rhythm in the Germanic verse, rhyme has been 
added as an accessory element, which may be present or not. 

In French verse, finally, the essential elements are also 
rhythm and rhyme. But the rhythm of the French verse is 
something quite different from that of either the classical or 
Germanic verse. The only definite metrical law observed in 
French poetry is that each portion of the verse-line that can 
be uttered without fatigue of the voice —?.e. practically, every 
short line, or each part of a longer line divided into two— 
shall contain a definite number of syllables and terminate in a 
word whose final sonant-syllable has a full rhetorical accent, and 
thus naturally requires, or at least allows, a brief pause (in 
the middle of the line called cesura). Between these final 
syllables, which form the pivots of the French verse, neither 
accent nor quantity are regulated by any other law than that 
which requires, in a general way, variation of accentual rhythm 
and harmony of combination. 

The absence in the French verse of regular and sus- 
tained rhythmical pulsation within each line, such as is 
characteristic of the English verse, is apt to offend, at first, 
the ear of one used to the latter. To the French ear, how- 
ever, the freedom and variation of his verse is preferable to 
the regulated accentual beat of the Germanic verse, in which 
he is apt to perceive something of monotony; and practice 
will soon teach even a stranger to appreciate the harmonious 
movement of good French verse. 

In compensation for this freedom of rhythm, rhyme has 
become a well-nigh indispensable element in French poetry.’ 
Moreover, the French poet imposes on himself certain pro- 





~ 1 Assonance (accordance of last tone-vowels simply) was characteristi¢ 
of the oldest French poetry, and is yet used in popular songs, 


238 SYNTAX. (421-423. 


sodial laws, in part tending to promote harmony, but in part 
also more or less artificial. Thus especially he avoids hiatus, 
except in a few cases where a formerly pronounced consonant 
has become silent. Further he gives, archaically, full syllabic 
value to every e mute that has a consonant before and 
after it, except at the end of the line. Again, he is restricted 
in his choice of words and constructions by certain principles, 
the neglect of which would tend to deprive his verse of its 
poetical effect. 

The essentials of the French verse that are briefly sketched 
out above, are considered more in detail below. 


422. NUMBER OF SYLLABLES; C&sSuURA. — The number of 
pronounced syllables that may be contained in one line varies” 
from two to twelve. Short lines counting less than six sylla- 
bles are rarely used except in alternation with longer lines. 
Lines of ten or twelve syllables are divided into two parts 
(hemistichs), separated by a short pause, or cesura, which in 
lines of ten syllables comes after the 4th syllable, or sometimes 
the 6th, but in lines of twelve syllables usually after the 6th. 
— Ex. 


ee “hae. cave! Mae Sie 
Un jour, seul dans le Colisée,? 


s Willee er eens Gita 789 1011 12 
Oui, je viens dans son temple || adorer l Eternel, 


423. E Mute SOUNDED.—JIn any syllable not ending a 
verse-line, e ‘mute’ is slightly sounded and counted as full 
vowel of syllabic value, except before or after a vowel-sound, 
where it is silent as in prose (cf. note 1). Thus, the combina- 





1 Qld French poetry was much less rigid in avoiding hiatus than mod- 
ern French. 
2 Roman type here used for e without syllabic value (423). 





. 


423-495.] FRENCH VERSE. 239 


tions faire ce, faites-le would each in the middle of a line 
count three syllables, and faire avec, feraient ce, la joie est also 
only three. In the last syllable of the line it is also faintly 
uttered (thus serving to bring out the harmonious interchange 
between masculine and feminine rhymes: 425); but does not 
count syllabically. Thus, nows sommes would in the middle of 
a line count as three syllables, but at the end only as two. — Ex. 


ee et a Pa 8 Wn, 2 
Telle qu'une bergere, || aw plus Dis jour de fete. 


Nore 1.— £ mute is not allowed to form hiatus with a preceding vowel. 
Hence it is either replaced by a circumflex, especially in future and con- 
ditional of verbs (e.g. lotirai for louerai: 128; gatté for gaieté) ; or it is simply 
silent, as in prose (e.g. aimaient, 2 syll.). As final, after vowel, it can occur 
only when followed by a vowel (before which it is elided), the resulting 
hiatus being then tolerated (e.g. /a joie est, but not /a joie que etc.). 

Note 2.—To aid in making up the required number of syllables, 
several words with an e mute in their end-syllable are allowed to be 
slightly changed. ‘Thus we may find encor for encore, ay for aie, certe for 
certes, jusques (also allowed in prose, before vowel) for jusque, Londre for 
Londres, and so on. Instead of avec is also Sometimes used avecque. 

Nore 3.— The distinction between diphthongs and dissyllabics (cf. 16) 
is in verse, at times, quite arbitrary. Oz is, indeed, always treated as a 
diphthong, but ze, co sometimes as dissyllabics where they would not be so 
treated in prose. 


424. Hiatus. — Between two words, hiatus (meeting of 
vowels) is not allowed, except 1. when the final of the first 
word is e preceded by a vowel (423 note 1); or 2. when it is a 
mute unlinked consonant (e.g. huissier, ayez garde). 

Notre. — Ht ‘and’ is not used before a vowel. 


Norr. — As the phrase i/ y a ‘there is’ contains a hiatus, it is in verse 
regularly supplanted by 7/ est; found also in prose. 


425. RHYME. — There are in French two kinds of rhyme: 
masculine, when the rhyming syllables are final (e.g. mar: pur), 
and feminine, when they are followed by an e ‘mute’ (e.g. mare: 
pure). Masculine and feminine rhymes are required to alter- 
nate, though with considerable freedom of arrangement. 


240 SYNTAX. 425-428. 


Nore 1.—The chief quality of French rhyme is sameness of sound. 
But, as an inheritance from a time when final letters were pronounced, 
some really rhyming words that terminate in discordant, though now mute, 
letters (others than d:t, c:g, or s: x, z) are not allowed to rhyme. Thus 
pere: méres; peux: feu; plier - fiez would not be acceptable rhyme-couples, 
while autant: attend; banc: rang; fais: paix would be so. 

Nore 2.— The final s of the Ist singular of a verb (an anomalous 
addition: p. 61) may be omitted to make the verb-form rhyme to the eye 
with another word not ending in s (e.g. vien, voi, béni for viens, vois, bénis). 


426. CHOICE OF WoRDS AND CONSTRUCTIONS. — French 
poetry like English, only in a higher degree, is characterized 
by the exclusion of certain common terms and by much free- 
dom of construction. Thus: 


a.—It prefers, in the serious style, certain more poetical words, for others 
more common, as for instance g/aive or fer for ¢pée; épieu for lance; flane 
for ventre or sein; jadis for autrefois ; maint (-te) for plusieurs ; soudain for 
aussitot ; trépas for mort ; courroux for colére ; etc. 
- b.—In the arrangement of the sentence it allows, or even prefers, 
certain irregularities, as, especially, that of placing a modifier before its 
verb. — Ex. ; 

Ma seur, de votre sort || je vous laisse ’empire. 


Et tous devant l’autel || avec ordre introduits, > 


427. ENJAMBEMENT. — In French poetry (especially classical: 428) 
it is objectionable to have a line terminate with a word that is in too close 
construction with a word in the following line to allow a natural pause 
(such a ‘striding over’ from one line to another being called enjambe- 
ment). Thus, to separate on different lines (or even on different hemistichs) 
son ceur aimable or il aime cette femme etc. would be unpoetical, especially 
when in lines of ten or twelve syllables. 


428. Some of the rules described above, as those referring to hiatus 
and enjambement, are much less strictly observed by modern poets, 
especially those of the Romantic school, than they were by the poets of 
the classical school (in the 17th and 18th centuries). 


429. One line is usually called a verse. <A certain number 
of verses forming a unit by themselves, constitute a stance (or 











428,429.) FRENCH VERSE. 241 


in an ode a strophe, or in a ballad a couplet). A stanza again 
is called quatrain, quintil, siwain, etc. according to the number 
of syllables (4, 5, 6, etc.) it contains. Several stanzas form a 
poem, their number being undetermined, except in a few kinds 
of poems, as in the sonnet and the rondeau. 


EXAMPLES oF VARIOUS Kinps or VERSE: 

a. — Alexandrines. —In larger poems and especially in drama- 
tic compositions, lines of twelve full syllables divided into two 
hemistichs, and usually with masculine and feminine rhymes 
in alternate couplets, are much used. Such verses are called 
Alexandrines, probably as being first used on a large scale in a 
poem about Alexander the Great (Roman d’ Alexandre) in the 
latter part of the 12th century. They were once much more 
common than they are now, even outside of France, and the 
18th century has, in fact, been called ‘the age of Alexandrines® 
—In the example below, cesura and rhythmically prominent 
syllables? are marked : 


Oui, je viens dans son temple || adorer l’ Eternel ; 
Je viens selon l'usage || antique et solennel 
Célébrer avec vous || la fameuse journée 

Ow sur le mont Sina || la loi nous fut donnée 

Que les temps sont changés ! || Sitdt que de ce jour 
La trompette sacrée || annoncait le retour, 

Du temple, orné partout || de festons magnifiques, 
Le peuple saint en foule || inondait les portiques ; 


b. — Verses of ten syllables : 
A Nevers donc, || chez les Visttandines 
Vivait naguére || un Perroquet fameuc, 
A qui son art || et son coeur généreux, 





1 In declamation of course taste decides how much prominence should 
be given to these syllables, 


242 SYNTAX. [ 429, 430. 


Ses vertus méme || et ses graces badines, 
Auraient dd faire || un sort moins rigoureuz, 
Si les beaux eaurs || étaient toujours heureux. 


c. — Verses of eight syllables (very common) : 


Quand on se rencontre et qu’on s’aime, 
Que peut-on échanger de mieux 

Que la priére, don supréme, 

Or pur qu’on recoit méme aux cieux ? 


d. — Mixed verses: 


Lorsque Venfant parait || le cercle de famille 
Applaudit & grand eris || son doux regard qui brille 
Fait briller tous les yeux, 
Et les plus tristes fronts || les plus souillés peut-étre, 
Se dérident soudain || & voir Venfant paraitre 
Innocent et joyeux. 


— 
XXI. 


RELATION OF ANGLO-FRENCH AND FRENCH WORDS.! 


430. FRENCH WorRDs IN ENGLISH.—A very large por- 
tion of the English vocabulary is of French origin. The bulk 
of its French elements was brought into English in conse- 
quence of the Norman conquest (1066). The obstinate resist- 
ance of the Saxons against the Normans led to their exclusion 
from all offices of state; and the language of the conquerors 
became the official language of the government and the 





1 For a fuller discussion of this subject, cf. the author’s Quelques observa- 
tions sur l’élément roman de l’anglais considéré dans ses rapports avec le frangais 
moderne (Acta Universitatis Lundensis, xix), 


430,431.] ANGLO-FRENCH AND FRENCH WORDS. 243 


fashionable dialect of all the upper classes. Even the instruc- 
tion of the schools was given in French alone. 

During more than two centuries, the Saxon idiom, retained 
by the lower classes, and looked down upon by the higher as 
a rude jargon, kept almost entirely free from any influence of 
the French, as is shown by the two poems, Layamon’s the 
Brut and the Ormulum. But later a vast body of French 
words was added to those of native stock; and the English 
of the latter part of the 14th century reveals the fact that, 
owing chiefly to a severing of pelitical ties between England 
and France, the interests of the upper and lower classes, as well 
as their two languages, had then begun to blend. This assimi- 
lating process continued, with various fluctuations, during the 
following centuries. To the Anglo-Norman element many 
words borrowed directly from French were added in the course 
of time. The whole number of French elements engrafted on 
the English stock is so large that, from a dictionary point of 
view, they compete with those of native origin. (The entire 
number of foreign words considerably surpasses that of the 
native.) The Saxon words, however, being of much more 
familiar use than the French and making up almost entirely 
such categories of frequently recurring words as pronouns and 
indeclinables, are, as actually used by classical and modern 
writers, in a very decided, though of course varying, majority. 


[431.] PROPORTION OF FRENCH Worobs. — A careful esti- 
mation of all the words in Skeat’s etymological dictionary 
(i.e. of the ‘primitive’ words of the language) gives the follow- 
ing results in round numbers:* Out of nearly 14,000 words 
that it contains, 5,000 are considered to be derived from French 
(which has received 3,500 of these words from Latin, the 
remainder from other sources, chiefly Greek and German). 
Only 4,000 are of Germanic origin (a trifle above 3,000 purely 





1 See foot-note, p. 242. 


244 SYNTAX. (431-433. 


Saxon). The remainder are from Latin (2,700), Greek (400), 
Celtic (250), or other sources. — Taking into account also 
derived words, these proportions would change in favor of the 
German element, Germanic primitives having yielded a much 
greater number of derivatives than French. 


[482.] With the French element of the English language the purely 
Latin element must not be confounded. Already the introduction of 
Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons (7th cent.) brought with it the study 
of Latin, and many Latin words were popularized (e.g. presbyter - priest ; 
predicare: preach; diabolus: devi#, etc.). When, in the 16th century, the 
classical literature became known to English scholars, a considerable influx 
of Latin elements took place, later increased by the necessities of science, 
commerce, and industry. The Latin words can generally be distinguished 
from the French by their form, which is less altered, and by their prevail- 
ingly technical use. Yet, it is not always feasible, even by more scientific 
tests, to decide the immediate source in this respect, because many French 
words have in English (as indeed in French) been reformed in their spelling 
so as to come nearer their ultimate classical origin: thus the old sugette 
was changed to subject; iuge to judge; marchant to merchant; vojcinage to 
vicinage ; etc. 


433. DIFFERENCE IN FORM BETWEEN ANGLO-FRENCH 
AND FRENCH Worbs. —It is natural that Anglo-French and 
French words should gradually diverge more and more in form 
as they lived a separate life under different circumstances, 
each yielding to the tendencies of a different language. Their 
pronunciation is never alike. In writing they are, indeed, 
sometimes identical (e.g. mention, portion, etc.). Far more 
frequently, however, they differ; for the most part so slightly 
as to be recognized as cognates at a glance, or after but little 
familiarity with the commonest changes (e.g. Fr. élégant : Engl. 
elegant ; concours : concourse; ancétre: ancestor; coupable: cul- 
pable ; épice: spice ; chanter: chant, etc.) ; but also often so as to 
require a more practised eye for their identification as twin- 
forms (e.g. Fr. cdte: Engl. coast; proie: prey; huitre: oyster; 
guerre: war; guichet: wicket; éteule: stubble; flasque: flaccid, 
etc.). 








433-436.] § ANGLO-FRENCH AND FRENCH WORDS. 245 


A few of the more common peculiarities of the Anglo-French 
forms as compared with the native French are noted below. 


[434.] The Anglo-French words gradually yielded to the. 
tendency in English of accenting (emphatically) the beginning 
instead of the end of the word. As a consequence, atonic 
syllables were generally dimmed or lost (e.g. Fr. chapitre, 
capitaine, gentil, demojselle, branche = Engl. chapter, captain, 
gentle, damsel, branch). A wide-reaching result of this prin- 
ciple was the loss of the French infinitive-ending, after its 
previous assimilation to that of English, formerly -en, as in 
German (e.g. old Fr. chant-er, abat-re, obe-ir = 0. Engl. chant-en, 
abat-en, obey-en = Engl. chant, abate, obey). 


[435.] On the other hand, many Anglo-French words, by 
regular transmission or artificial reform (432), contain various 
sounds or letters (chiefly consonants and tone-vowels) that 
were lost or altered in French. Thus, for instance, the English 
words barge, function, glory, judge, bailiff, pilgrim, hostage, 
market, gim(b)let, corne, staple, liquorice, varlet, arrest, court, 
waste, have each one sound or several which, though formerly 
present in old French forms, are lost or altered in the modern: 
berge, fonction, gloire, juge, bailli, pélerin, otage, marché, 
gibelet, cor, étape, réglisse, valet, arréter, cour, gater. 


[436.] In virtue of this preserving tendency, it is especially 
common to find in Anglo-French words an old s or / which 
is lost in French. Nearly 200 English primary words have 
such an etymological s, and not far from a hundred, J! The 
loss of s within a French word is usually there indicated by a 
circumflex: e.g. Engl. coast: Fr. céte (old Fr. coste, Lat. costa) ; 
cost: cotter (0. F. coster, L. constare); cloister: cloitre (0. F. 
cloistre, L. claustrum) ; honest: honnéte (0. F. honeste, L. ho- 





1 See foot-note, p. 242, 


eI a 


246 SYNTAX. (436-440. 


nestus); oyster: huitre (0. F. oistre, L. ostrea); but also discover : 
découvrir (0. F. descowvrir) ; ete. 

Latin initial sc(h)-, st-, sp-, usually taking in popular Latin a 
prothetic ¢ (later e), became in old French esc-, est-, esp-, and 
then by the loss of s (retained in Anglo-French) éc-, ét-, ép- 
(ef. 1. IL). Hence Engl. esquire or squire: Fr. écuyer (0. F. 
escuyer, low Lat. scutarius); espy or spy: épier (0. Fr. espier, 
O. H. Germ. spehon) ; spice : épice (0. F. espice, L. species); stable : 
étable (0. F. estable, L. stabulum) ; ete. 

The lost 7 is in French usually changed to wu: e.g. Engl. 
culpable: Fr. coupable (0. F. culpable, L. culpabilis); mantel or 
mantle: manteau (o. F. mantel, L. mantellum); chisel: ciseau 
(o. F. cisel); fault: faute (0. F. faulte, L. fallere); pencil: 
pinceau (0. F. pincel, L. penicillum), ete. 


[437.] It is also well to notice that several Germanic words 
that have come through old French into English have there 
retained a primitive w, which in French was changed to gu 
or g (as such also, in part, by later transfer brought into 
English): e.g. Engl. reward (= regard): Fr. regarder (0. F. 
rewarder); wardrobe: garderobe (0. F. warderobe); wicket: 
guichet (0. F. wisket, viquet); ete. : 


[438.] Owing to the fact that both in English and French words of 
classical origin have frequently, by learned reform of spelling (also, in 
part, affecting the pronunciation), been brought nearer the originals, it is 
not always easy to decide whether such apparent archaisms, as those 
pointed out above are to be considered as genuine, i.e. transmitted by 
general usage, or simply accidental. 


[439.] Among other changes may be noticed the frequent attachment 
of an English suffix to an Anglo-French word: e.g. motion-less, pain-ful, 
pain-less, pain-ful-ness, nice-ly, cease-less, charm-er, etc. 


440. DIFFERENCE IN MEANING BETWEEN ANGLO-FRENCH 
AND FRENCH Worpbs.— The meaning of words is subject to 
change not less than their form, and the student will do well 
to observe carefully any distinction in sense between French 








440.] ANGLO-FRENCH AND FRENCH WORDS. 247 


words and their Anglo-French cognates. Even here it is natural 
that French and Anglo-French words, subject to varied influ- 
ences, should gradually diverge. Different conditions have on 
either side expanded, restricted, or otherwise modified the 
sense of originally common words. ‘The divergence is, indeed, 
at times so slight as to be appreciated only by the nicest 
observation. Respectable means in both English and French 
‘worthy of respect,’ but the moral tone deciding what is worthy 
of respect is not in all cases precisely the same; sentiment 
usually means the same thing in English and French, yet un 
sentiment de la musique is ‘a sense of music,’ wn sentiment 
(Littré ; or sensation) de la faim ‘a feeling of hunger,’ un senti- 
ment (or sensation) dans le bras ‘a feeling in the arm’; English 
and French religion coincide in general use, yet the French sa 
religion pour le serment is in English ‘his pious regard for an 
oath’; marcher is ‘march,’ but il marche vite, il y arrivera is 
‘he walks fast, he will get there’; and so on. 

Yet more often cognate words differ in some or all of 
their usual acceptations. Engl. fashion: Fr. facon often 
accord in sense, but the meaning of ‘prevailing style’ is so 
peculiarly English (not quite covered by French mode) that 
the form fashion has in that signification been borrowed again 
into French. Engl. barb: Fr. barbe may both mean ‘beard,’ 
or, by metaphor, something resembling a beard; but while 
barb is rare in the former sense, barbe is the word for it 
(barbe @homme ‘a man’s beard,’ barbe de chat ‘a cat’s whiskers, 
barbe de boue ‘a goat’s beard’); and while in their figurative 
sense they agree in part, yet the usual meaning of English 
barb as part of a hook or arrow is lacking in French. Engl. 
viand means ‘article of food,’ but viande usually ‘meat’; Engl. 
abase is now rarely used except in a figurative sense, while 
Fr. abaisser usually means ‘let down, lower’; Engl. impeach 
is obsolete in the sense of ‘impede,’ meaning now ‘accuse,’ 
while Fr. empécher means ‘ (impede) prevent’; Engl. pier is a 


248 SYNTAX. (440-449. 


‘solid stone-work, wharf’ (of stone or wood!), but Fr. pierre 


. ‘stone’ (Lat. petra ‘rock’): and so on. 


[441.] As might be expected, the Anglo-French words have 
much more frequently than the French deviated from their 
primitive sense. Transplanted into a new soil where they had 
to struggle against the Saxon words, while the rootlets of their 
own etymological origins could not thrive as well as in the 
native soil, they usually adapted their meaning to special needs 
or shades of thought not covered by the indigenous words. 
In its adjustment of original synonyms or quasi-synonyms, 
English, where it did not drop one of them, has prevailingly 
given to the French derivative the more metaphorical or ele- 
gant, and to the indigenous (esp. Saxon) the more literal or — 
every-day sense (cf. barb: beard; abase: lower; bounty: good- 
ness ; travail: work); or the discrimination is more subtile, often 
one of taste (cf. sacred: holy; flower: bloom ; liberty: freedom). 
The result has been of great benefit to the English language, 
whose stores of expression have been much enriched by this 
struggle between native and foreign words, and their mutual 
adaptions to different uses. 


[442.] A few examples will serve to illustrate the relative 
conservatism of Anglo-French and French words as regards 
their ordinary meaning. Thus, 


a. Anglo-French words less conservative than French: — Lat. barba 
‘beard’: F. barbe ‘beard,’ E. barb ; — Lat. bonitas ‘ goodness’ : F. bonté‘ good- 
ness,’ E. bounty ; — Lat. clavis ‘key’: F. clef ‘key,’ E. clef; — Lat. colligere 
‘collect’: F. cueiilir ‘ collect,’ E. coil ; — Lat. acer ‘sharp’: F. aigre ‘sharp,’ 
E. eager ; — Lat. folium ‘leaf’: F. feuille ‘leaf,’ E. foil (as tin foil ete.) ; — 
Lat. diurnus ‘daily’: F. journée ‘day,’ E. journey (orig’ly of a day) ;— 
Lat. penna ‘feather’: F. penne ‘ tail-feather,’ E. pen ; — Lat. sequere ‘follow’: 
F. suivre (o. F. suir) ‘follow,’ E. sue ;— Lat. scintilla ‘spark’: F, étincelle 
‘spark,’ E. tinsel ; — Lat. petra ‘rock’: F. pierre ‘stone,’ E. pier. 

b. Anglo-French words more conservative than French: — Lat. pinna 
‘wing’: F. pignon ‘gable’ (Norm. Fr. ‘wing’), E. pinion ;— Lat. usus 





442, 443.] | ANGLO-FRENCH AND FRENCH WORDS. 249 


‘use’: F. user ‘wear (out),’ as intr. also ‘make use’ (de ‘of *), EB. use’; 
— Lat. separare ‘separate’: F. sevrer ‘wean (a child),’ E. sever ; —low Lat. 
vivenda (fr. vivere ‘live’ ): F. viande ‘ meat,’ E. viand. 

¢c. Anglo-French and French words both deviating from their etymologi- 
cal sense: — Lat. cara ‘face’: F. chére ‘entertainment,’ E. cheer ; — Lat. 
continere ‘hold together’: F. contenance ‘ deportment, air,’ E. countenance ; 
— Lat. stare ‘stand’: F. étage ‘story = floor,’ E. stage ; — old Germ. warjan 
‘defend’: F. guérite ‘sentry-box, watch-tower,’ E. garret ; — Lat. trabs 
‘beam,’ trave (to confine horses when shod): F. travail ‘work’ (pl. 
travails ‘brakes, traves,’ 49. 4), E. travail, travel. 


443. ANGLO-FRENCH WORDS WHOSE ORIGINALS ARE 
LOST IN MODERN FRENCH. — Words not only change in form 
and meaning. They also often grow obsolete and are dropped 
out of use, now in favor of some other word, now without any 
such substitute; sometimes forever, sometimes to be resusci- 
tated and enter again as current coin into the language. 
English has thus lost many an Anglo-French word 'which it 
once possessed (e.g. devoir, egal, sperance, misericorde, penible, 
petit, roy yet Scotch, rivage, scrimer, etc.). On the other hand, 
English has also preserved not a few words which, once bor- 
rowed from old French, have died out in modern French. It 
is not always easy to say when a word should be considered 
as obsolescent or abandoned. But even counting liberally as 
modern such French words as are doubtful in this respect, the 
vocabulary of the English language is found to contain about 
300 words once present as type-forms in old French, but lost or 
replaced by other words (kindred or not) in modern French.’ 
A few of the common ones are given, as examples, below. 

Abeyance, affiance, aggrieve, alas, amount, arraign, arson, avenge, barter, 
benison, bondage, canvass, carol, cavil, challenge, claim, cloak, contemn, contend, 
dainty, deface, delight, discrepant, disturb, encounter, enhance, entice, entreat, 
feature, genial, host, involve, motley, navy, obedient, ointment, peculiar, pilfer 
plenty, quaint, quiver, rear, rehearse, relish, remain, remote, revel, rob, satchel, 
scorn, solemn, sullen, surrender, vouch, etc. 





1 For full list cf. the work referred to foot-note, p. 242. 


EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 


{@~ Exercises in fine print correspond to rules in fine print. They may 
then be omitted in a first course. Help is given the student only in less 
obvious cases and where the reference-paragraphs of each exercise, which 
should be well mastered, do not furnish the required key. For general 
reference the vocabulary and the index may be consulted. Articles, 
numerals, pronouns, and proper names when identical in French and Eng- 
lish, are not repeated in the Vocabulary. 


ns BBE 


I, 
The Definite Article (180-195). 


A. 1. This woman has a little mouth and blue eyes. 2. The 
wolf has a long head, a thin nose, and small ears. 3. Fénelon 
had a good heart and a penetrating mind. 4. This tree has a 
hard bark, a high trunk, and slender branches. 5. He is always 
seen (tr. One sees him a.) with a pen in his hand. 6. He 
entered with his hat in his hand. 7. That cloth costs two 
dollars a yard. 8. Meat is sold (refl.) at eighteen cents a 
pound. 9. I have bought his cloth at five francs a yard. 10. The 
bookseller has sold one third of his books. 11. General A. 
has shown his horses to Lieutenant B. — B. 12. Ancient Rome 
was a glorious city. 13. France is now a republic. 14. Asia 
is much larger than Europe. 15. The Pyrenees separate France 
from Spain. 16. The scenery on the Rhine is magnificent. 
17. My brother lives in (en) Germany. 18. These emigrants 
come from Sweden. 19. I am going to (en) America. 20. The 
empire of Russia and the kingdom of Spain. 21. The army 
of Italy (i.e. the French army, so called) accomplished in 
Europe the work of the French revolution. 


A. 1. Those horses have beautiful necks. 2. Their minds are tired 





Ss ee ee 7 ¥ 


EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 251 


(transl. They have tired minds). 3. He has lost his courage. 4. My sister 
has a headache. 5. I have a (severe) toothache. 6. The poor man was 
asking alms. 7. I wish youwelcome. 8. This poor man has not a farthing. 
9. Somebody cries for help.— B. 10. Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau 
have enlightened (141) us by their writings. 11. Washington was the 
Cincinnatus of America. 12. He is in Canada. 138. This bold man as- 
cended Mont Blanc. 14. He lives in southern France (in Great Britain). 
15. The emperor of France and the queen of Great Britain. 16. He is 
going to India. 17. He comes from Mexico. 18. English cheese is very 
good. 19. I have studied the history of France with much pleasure, but 
I have not read the history of the Netherlands. 20. The American ambas- 
sador was once a German merchant. 21. Naples is a delightful country. 
22. The Mississippi is immense. 23. Rhine wines are excellent. 


II. 
The Generic Article (195-6). 


1. Man is weak. 2. Men fade away (passent) like flowers. 
3. A man has rights (partitive) which he can not (ne saurait) 
sacrifice. 4. Life is a continuous combat. 5. Moderation is 
the wise man’s treasure. 6. Patience and prudence are neces- 
sary toa general. 7. Iron is a useful metal. 8. Water is the 
most healthful of drinks. 9. Rich people have no other rights 
than poor people. 10. Blue becomes you better than green. 
11. My sister is learning French, but she does not yet speak 
French. 

Til. 
The Partitive Sign (197-201). 


A. 1. I have eaten bread and meat. 2. That man has cour- 
age (cour). 3. With courage (courage) and perseverance you 
will succeed. 4. Rome was at first governed by kings. 5. You 
must not (J/ ne faut pas) think too much of (@) money and 
clothes. 6. He has beautiful pictures and excellent books. 
7. I bring you good news. 8. He will surely rise to high 


dignities. 9. I have bought some black silk. 10. Your brother 
2 1 
devotes himself to deep studies, 11. That man has no courage 


252 SYNTAX. 


(coeur) ; that woman has no feelings. 12. The Turks never > 
drink any wine. 13. You ought not to make any remarks on 
the subject (ld-dessus). 14. She has no such mean feel- 
ings. 15. I shall not make useless remarks on the subject. 
16. That is not wine, it is water. 17. We live on (de) bread 
and meat. 18. She was overwhelmed with flattery. 19. We 
are in need of money. 20. This work is full of happy thoughts. 
—B. 21. A great number of soldiers have passed through the 
city. 22. A crowd of curious people followed him. 23. I have 
bought two pounds of sugar, a pound of coffee, and five pounds 
of tea. 24. This man has many acquaintances and few friends. 
25. It is not polite to (de) ask (faire) too many questions. 
26. I have many (or plenty of: bien) books. 27. I have more 
books than my brother. 28. Many (bien) persons were present. 
29. Most people are industrious. 

1. Has she any grandsons? 2. This man has good sense. 3. Has he 
not money and friends? What more does he need? 4. He showed some 
manliness on this occasion. 5. He sells good cloth and bad. 6. We have 
white silk and also black. 7. There are good and bad people in this world. 
8. I have something new to (@) tellyou. 9. There were (136) eight hundred 
killed and five hundred wounded. 10. Which (271) is the happier, you or I? 


1. 
Repetition and Omission of Articles and Partitive Sign 
(202-204). 

1. This woman sells apples and pears. 2. Good and candid 
friends are rare. 3. This poor man is hungry (204. A. 1). 4. Tam 
sleepy. 5. What kind of weather is it (‘What weather makes 
it’) to-day? 6. It is very fine weather to-day. 7. I have 
opened the windows purposely. 8. He said he would do it 
with pleasure. 9. Laman Englishman. 10. Charles has be- 
come a big boy. 11. My father was a physician. 12. He was 
made (tr. One made him) general. 13. He comes from Caen, 
a. city in (de) Normandy. 14. The Miser, a comedy by Moliére, 
is played to-night. 15. Children, parents, friends, all, bewailed 
him. 








EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 253 


1. He is hungry and thirsty. 2. I am cold; I am not warm. 3. He 
was afraid. 4. She will be ashamed of her folly. 5. He is right, but you 
are wrong. 6. The children are sleepy. 7. I shall ask justice. 8. These 
children do not pay (make: font) attention. 9. She excites (fait) envy. 
10. He fired (tr. made fire). 11. She is homely enough to (a) frighten 
people (ir. make fright). 12. He looks pleased. 13. Take care. 14. Take 
breath. 15. She takes part in (a) our society. 16. I shall do him justice. 
17. I shall visit this lady. 18. I shall find means to do it. 19. He was 
on horseback. 20. I did it on purpose. 21. I shall do it with pleasure. 
22. I am without fear. 23. I take her as (pour) a model. 24. He receives 
me with (a) openarms. 25. I have bought these books at a great cost. 
26. First volume, third chapter. 27. He lives in Washington street. 
28. He is (Jlest) a Frenchman; it is (c’est) a Frenchman. 29. His 
brother is a merchant. 30. Emily has become a big girl. 31. These men 
are soldiers ; these men are soldiers that come from the war. 32. They 
are (Ils sont) English. 33. Augustus, the nephew of Cesar. 384. Rich 
and poor, high and low were animated with (de) the same ardor. 385. This 
poor girl has neither father nor mother, and she is without money. 


wa 
Nouns (206-208). 


1. His brother was made captain in the guards. 2. They 
became (transi. made themselves) nuns. 3. His uncle has been 
appointed minister to France. 4. I consider him (to be) an 
honest man. 5. There is the man who gave my child some 
apples. 6. I have made my friend read your letter (208, note 1). 
7. Make that girl tell the truth (208, note 1). 8. I have made 
him say it (208, note 1, 2). 9. Pride and vanity cause men to 
commit many follies. 10. I have heard them say these words. 
11. He has shown these girls his collection of pictures. 12. I 
have seen him try it. 13. I shall make them do it. : 


VI. 
Nouns with Prepositions (209-217). 


1. My father’s books have come from Paris. 2. He has (est: 
142) died from hunger. 3. He repents (refl.) of his conduct. 


254 SYNTAX. 


4. She is loved by everybody. 5. I have bought English steel. 
6. They overwhelmed him with praises. 7. Do not accustom 
your heart to envy and hatred. 8. A son owes obedience (no 
art.) to his parents. 9. Let us put that off (imp’ve, 1 pl.) 
until to-morrow. 10. He is exposed to the sun. His brother 
lives in Boston and his sister in the country. 11. Birds fly in 
the air. 12. This thing has (est: 142) fallen into a deep 
oblivion. 13. My uncle lives in Great Britain, and my brother 
in Germany. 14. This happened in the year 1850. 15. He 
was here last summer in July. 16. He defends himself 
as (214) a brave man. 17. 1t was no longer (Ce ne furent 
plus: 252, 300) the soldiers of the republic, but of — 
Marius, Pompey, and Cesar. 


1. I have punished her for her fault. 2. They were armed with guns. 
8. Your success depends on your perseverance. 4. She has many (bien or 
beaucoup) friends. 5. This wall is thirty feet high (express in three 
different ways). 6. This table is six feet long. 7. The weight of that box 
is twenty kilogrammes. 8. The price of this picture is three dollars. 9. I 
am three inches taller than he. 10. My watch is five minutes slow. 
11. Do you play the violin? 12. No, I play the harp. 18. I have treated 
him as a friend. 14. This man has abused my kindness. 15. He serves 
meas model. 16. He changes his (omit) opinion. 17. I enjoy his favor. 
18. They were approaching the city. 19. I shall redouble my efforts. 
20. He perceived her falseness. 21. He suspected this treason. 22. Have 
you never passed over a grave without suspecting (inf.) it? 23. He trav- 
els on horseback. 24. They speak in aloud voice. 25. She does it on 
purpose. 26. My sister has the headache. 27. Ihave asorearm. 28. The 
penknife belongs to my brother. 29. She is always thinking (thinks 
always) of her mother. 30. What are you thinking of? 31. I advise 
my brother to do it, and she also advises him to doit. 82. He reproaches 
his sister for her fault (tr. reproaches her fault to his sister). 33. Have 
you promised your teacher to be diligent? 34. I have borrowed this book 
from my friend. 35. He snatched the knife from the scamp. 386. Fortune 
can take (éter) nothing from a wise man, because it gives him nothing. 
87. I ask pardon of this man. 38. There is not a man in the city who 
knows (subj.) it. 89. My father dines in town (or out of town) to-day. 
40, He will leave in two hours. 41. I shall see you again in eight days 





te ia lel ol nl il 


EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 255 


(d’aujourd’hui en huit). 42. Isuppose he has done it from fear. 43. Come 
this way, please. 44. I receive two dollars a day. 45. Troy was destroyed 
by the Greeks. 46. Mr. B. is respected by everybody. 47. I arrived 
before you. 48. He appears before the judge. 49. I have been at your 
father’s. 50. I come from your house. 51. Be charitable towards the 
poor. 52. He went towards the hill. 


VIL. 
Agreement of Adjectives (219-220). 


1. My good father and mother have come. 2. The poor 
(sing.) and the rich are alike before God. 3. I found the door 
and the window shut. 4. My brother and my sister are very 
happy. 5. This man has an astonishing courage and prudence. 
6. It is a ruined castle or house. 7. Public order and useful- 
ness cannot be the fruit of crime. 8. The polecat and the 
weasel are equally dangerous. 

1. I study the French and German languages (express in three ways). 
2. Enclosed you will find my debt of twodollars. 8. My brother speaks 
with much kindness of his late aunts. 4. These ladies look good-natured. 
5. These stones seem (to be) very hard. 6. He was bare-headed and bare- 


footed. 7. I shall come in an hour or an hour anda half. 8. All except 
the ladies may enter. 9. She sings false. 10. These paintings cost dear. 


VIII. 
Place of Adjectives (221-223). 


1. Mary is a nice girl, and Henry is a pretty little boy. 
2. My neighbor is a laborious man. 3. I have bought a round 
table. 4. This famous lawyer is also an amiable and virtuous 
man. 5. I lke the blue.sky, the high trees, and the green 
fields. 6. This virtuous queen was much beloved, as are 
(comme Je sont: 250, b) all (292) virtuous persons. 7. This 
man is an English merchant. 8. Have you ever read a French 
poem? 9. History is an interesting and instructive study. 
10. An affected simplicity is a delicate deception. 11. A plain, 
natural style is the only one to be recommended. 12. I like 


256 SYNTAX. 


the simple and cordial manners of the Scotch. 13. Montaigne, - ; 


the greatest thinker of his time, enriched the young and un- 
formed literature of France with his profound and brilliant 
essays. . 


1. That is the finest picture (add that, 281) I have ever seen. 2. Gus- 
tavus Adolphus was a truly great man. 3. Charles is an honest lad, but 
I do not know whether he is a brave boy. 4. He is a poor actor, but 
he is not a poor man. 5. He is a tall man, but he is not a great man. 
6. His action betrays a black ingratitude. 7. My honored brethren, this 
is a hard necessity. 


IX. 
Comparison (224-231). 


1. France is about as large as Germany, but it is not so. 


large as Russia. 2. He is witty (Jl a de Vesprit) like a 
Frenchman. -3. The dog is more faithful than the cat. 4. This 
young man is taller by two inches than his brother, who is 
three years older. 5. He has been married more than two 
years. 6. This wine is worse than water. 7. France has 
more than 500,000 soldiers. 8. America is the greatest and 
the most powerful republic in the world. 9. They are my 
dearest and most faithful friends. 10. He is the bravest man 
in (de: 211, d) the world. 


1. The more difficult a thing is, the more honorable it is. 2. The poorer 
people are, the fewer cares they have. 3. That girl speaks better than 
she writes (n’ecrit: 386). 4. I like this flower, but I like that one yet 
more. 5. The best thing you can do is (c’est : 266, b) to fulfil your duties. 
6. This stream is deepest at its outlet. 7. That is certainly the least 
(that) he can do. 


X. 
Numerals (233-237). 


1. Louis XVI, king of France, was beheaded at Paris on the 
21st of January, 1793. 2. What time is it? 3. It is three 
o’clock; it is a quarter past three; it is half past three; it is 








es 


EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 257 


a quarter to four; it is ten minutes past three; it is twelve 
minutes before ten; it istwelve. 4. What day of the month is 
it? 5. Itisthe twentieth. 6. To-day (411. a) is the fourth of 
July. 7. How old is your sister? 8. She is fifteen years old. 


1. I have been here already half a year, but you have been here only 
a fortnight. 2. I shall return in a week. 


XI. 


Personal Pronouns (239-256). 
Review carefully 100-105. 


1. He knows me, and he hears me. 2. Does he know me? 
does he hearme? 3. I do not see him, and I do not hear him. 
4. She gave me a silver thimble, and I gave her a work-box. 
5. I told them that they would come. 6. Have.you told her 
that he would come? 7. They (on) will tell it to me (or to 
him). 8. They will grant it to us (orto them). 9. I have a 
pretty rose. I shall show it to her (or to you), but I shall 
not give it to her (or to you). 10. I have his letters. I shall 
send them to you (or to them). 11. Hear me: tell me if that 
is true. 12. Here is an inkstand; take it and give it to him. 
13. Send her this needle. 14. Here are the documents, send 

_them to them; do not send them to them. 15. Here 
-is a ruler, keep it and do not return it to him (or to her). 
16. Where is my copy-book? Who has taken it, you or he 
(or she or they)? 17. He and I have seen it. 18. I shall 
introduce you to her (to him). 19. He hastened to them. 
20. I appeal to you. 21. If she had asked it of me, I would 
have given it to her with pleasure. 22. Do not discover your- 
self to him. 23. Do not repeat that to her. 24. She has 
written me a letter, and I shall answer her (or it). 25. There 
is your friend; we were just speaking (spoke just) of him. 
26. When I have ( fut.) received a letter from her, I shall tell 
you of it. 27. I admire this castle, I have a picture of it. 


258 SYNTAX. 


28. This road is very dangerous; keep away from it. 29. You — 


have (got) fine cloth; give me some. 30. The science of lan- 
guage is most interesting (229, note 2); I shall devote all my 
time to it. 31. One ought rarely to speak of one’s self. 
32. Crime brings remorse in its train (tr. ‘drags = traine 
remorse after itself’). 33. Every one for himself. 34. This 
young man, while obeying (@) his father, is working for him- 
self. ; 


1, J have ventured it. 2. He will doit. 3. You may act thus, but he 
will act differently. 4. This umbrella belongs to her. 5. I shall rely on 
you. 6. He is always thinking of her. 7. I the undersigned (or We the 
undersigned) give my (our) assent to this contract. 8. Are you the heirs 
of the deceased? Yes, we are (cf. 250, a, note). 9. Are these gentlemen 
brothers? I believe (that) they are. 10. I have found a person such as 
I desired. 


XI. 
Possessive and Demonstrative Pronouns (257-270). 


1. She took her pencil from her box. 2. Your brother is 
not in hisroom; he isinmine. 3. He gave me your keys and 
his. 4. You are my dearest and most faithful friend. 5. This 
carriage is too large; it is larger than that (which) you showed 
me. 6. If you act in that manner you will not be allowed to 
go out with us. 7. Your greatest fault is (e’est, 266, b) your 
idleness. 8. What is false is always bad. 9. What is of 
consequence (importe) to us is to do what is right. 
10. What astonishes me is that you have not come. 11. To 
do good (Faire du bien) to men is to render homage to God. 
12. He who triumphs over (de) himself is happy (render in 
two ways). 18. Those who love others are themselves beloved. 
14. Our engravings are better than those (which) I saw at 
(chez) the bookseller’s. 15. I have read the life of Welling- 
ton and that of Napoleon; the latter was the greater man, the 
former the better citizen.. 16. I love Paris, its streets are fine, 





a 
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EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 259 


1. This house is mine. 2. A relation of mine. 3. My children received 
each their present. 4. I have found to-day a handkerchief of yours 
amongst mine. 5. A handkerchief of mine, you say; it is not mine, it 
is your friend’s. 6. That is not gold; it is copper, as I think (ce me 
semble). 7. New York is a beautiful city (express in two ways). 8. Cesar 
was a great captain (two ways). 9. This is beautiful, and that is not 
beautiful. 10. That is impossible for me. 11. It does not please me that 

you do (subjunctive) that. 12. Is that your work-box? 


XIII. 
Interrogative and Relative Pronouns (271-281). 


1. Which horse will you ride? 2. Who is that gentleman? 
3. What is that project you are talking of (tr. of which you a. 
t.: 412)? 4. Which one of these young girls is your sister (or 
Which ones etc.)? 5. Which one (or Which ones) of these en- 
gravings do you prefer? 6. Who has come? 7. Whom do you 
expect? 8. Who are these boys? 9. Whom do you love most 
of your comrades? 10. What does she say? 11. What are 
you meddling with? (412). 12. What are you thinking 
of (a)? 13. There are many customs in these provinces that 
are ridiculous. 14. A man who is truthful is always respected. 
15. His mother, for whom he works, is old and infirm. 16. He 
tries to alleviate the position of his father, which is a painful 
one (one not transl.). 17. The house in which I live belongs 
to my brother whom you saw yesterday. 18. Here is the book 
in which you have read this passage. 19. The man of whom 
(express in three ways) you speak has just gone out. 20. The 
news of which (two ways) you speak is false. 21. That man 
whose will is strong is sure to succeed. 22. Weariness is an 
evil whose remedy is work. 23. This is the gentleman in 
whose house I live. 24. He alone has the right to be happy 
on whose life rests the happiness of others. 25. I do not 
know what troubles him. 26. I cannot surmise what he is 
thinking of. 27. Here is what you ask for (for not transi.). 


260 SYNTAX. 


1. What is that? 2. Whatisdeath? 38. Whatfrightens you? 4. These 
men do not busy themselves with anything whatever (287, note). 5. Nothing 
could be expected of one who knows nothing. 6. He who says nothing, 


consents. 7. I shall receive a hundred dollars, of which amount you shall 


have one half. 


XIV. 
Indefinite Pronouns (282-294). 


1. Have you some books to (a) lend me? 2. Whatever riches 
you may possess (subj.), do not despise the poor. 3. How- 
ever skilful you may be, try to be modest. 4. However dull 
a man may be, he has always something good in his character. 
5. Do not laugh at (de) other people’s faults. 6. Charity is 
contented that others be (subj.) preferred. 7. Nobody has 
been forgotten. 8. One person has been forgotten. 9. Is 
there anybody who is (subj.) perfectly happy? 10. He left 
without paying anybody. 11. I do not think there is (subj.) 
any man without a fault. 12. She had no knowledge of my 
arrival. 13. Every man is subject to error. 14. The whole 
family is in good health. 15. This man speaks of everything, 
but he does not think of everything. 16. My sister was quite 
astonished, quite surprised, at your request. 17. We (on) 
ought not to speak ill of each other. 18. Men deceive each 
other. 19. Both (give m. and f.) are gone. 20. Both the 
(The two) consuls followed his standard. 21. I know these 
girls: either the one or the other will surely come. 22. Neither 
(give both m. and f.) obtained the prize. 23. Whoever you be, 
have regard for justice. 


1. She is some twenty years old. 2. I have seen something beautiful ; I 
have seen a beautiful thing. 3. Remember, my sister, one is not always 
young and pretty. 4. However rich you are, do not despise the poor. 
5. All Paris is in an uproar. 6. Such a man is despicable. 7. Many a 
man speaks of things which he does not understand. 8. One covets what 
another (/’autre) despises. 9. He had called on Mr. So and So. 10. There 
is not any one at all (287, note) to help me, 





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EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. | 261 


XV. 
Agreement of Verb and Subject (296-302). 


1. I shall do what the others do (tr. will-do the others: 
510, 416. a). 2. Truthfulmess and honesty go together. 
3. Sciences, arts, and literature are sources of enjoyment and 
happiness. 4. (Hither) you or your brother will come. 5. His 
ruin or his safety depends on his answer. 6. Luck or rash- 
ness may have made (ont pu faire: 317. a) heroes. 7. Neither 
your fate nor mine is worthy of envy. 8. Neither my father 
nor my mother will come (jor ‘neither... nor’ ef. 390). 
9. A single word, a smile, a look, is sufficient. 10. The gentle- 
ness, the kindness of the great Henry has been celebrated 
with (de: 211. a) a thousand praises. 11. Great and small, 
rich and poor, none can escape death. 12. Learning as well 
as (de méme que) valor has its value. 138. My brother and I 
will come to see you. 14. You and he will be rewarded. 
15. The number of (the) dead was considerable. 16. Many 
men were there. 17. A crowd of children were running in 
the street. 18. It is they (It is we) who request it of you. 
19. It is vices that degrade us. 20. It is facts we want. 

1. It is compliments (that) he wants. 2. We are the only ones that 


willcome. 38. They (On) made up (transl. agreed) and were good friends. 
4. You are welcome, sir, and you also are welcome, ladies. 


XVI. 
Indicative Tenses (303-318). 


1. I work to (pour) earn my living. 2. I have been here 
since Monday. 3%. How long have you been in France? I 
have been here two years (two days). 4. Have you met the 
inspector to-day? 5. I rose (or got up) at six o’clock this 
morning. 6. We have had much rain this year. 7. Alexander 
the Great destroyed the Persian empire. 8. Rome was not 
built in one day. 9. I received a letter from my husband 


262 SYNTAX. 





yesterday. 10. I was dressing when you came in. 11. He = 


often comes to see us. 12. When I was young I liked to play. 
13. He had left when I arrived. 14. I saw him yesterday. 
15. I received his letter the day before I left (la veille de 
mon départ). 16. As soon as I had arrived, I went to (‘go to’ 
aller chez or aller trouver) my friend. 17. When he had finished, 
he went out. 18. If you would come, I would tell it to you. 
19. I would pay you, if I had the money. 20. I would have 
done it, if I had been able. 21. I had been two years in 
America when my brother arrived. 22. I shall write when 
I have seen him. 23. As soon as it is dark we shall go out 
together, you and I. 24. We are going to buy Christmas- 
presents. 25. I was about to go out when the clerk entered. — 
26. We should always fulfil our duties towards God and men. 
27. She certainly ought to write to her guardian about it. 
28. She ought to have (317. b) written to her mother. 29. They 
should have received the news with fortitude. 30. That dis- 
grace was to (317. c) happen (was inevitable). 


1. He will do it, if he comes to-morrow. 2. It is uncertain whether she 
will come to-morrow. 38. I leave to-night. 4. He has probably found his 
watch, or he would not be back. 5. They cannot do it, but they might 
try it. 6. Iam not able to tell you (add it: 250. b). 


XVII. 
Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses (320-3387: ef. also 382-7). 


A. 1. I wish him to come (tr. that he c.). 2. Caligula 
wished that the Romans should render him divine honors. 
3. The law requires that thieves should be punished. 4. Au- 
gustus commanded in his will that they (on) should not seek 
to extend his empire. 5. I will be obeyed (tr. that one obey 
me). 6. The teacher expects you to be attentive. 7. You 
must (use Jl faut) leave. 8. It is right (juste) that you ~ 
should be punished. 9. It is important (J/ importe) that he 





EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 263 


should know it to-day. 10. I shall prevent him from going 
out. 11. I fear some misfortune has happened to him. 12. 1 
do not apprehend that he will do anything wrong. 13. I hope 
he will come; do you hope he will come? I no longer hope 
he will come. 14. I doubt whether he knows it. 15. The 
Egyptians did not doubt that certain plants and animals were 
divinities. 16. I do not think it will rain to-day. 17. It 
is not probable (or not certain) that he will send me the 
money. 18. He denies that he has been told that (¢r. that one 
has told etc.). 19. Seek friends that can assist you with their 
advice (pl.). 20. I seek a retreat in which I may be quiet. 
21. Is there a mortal that can say that he is always happy? 
22. Let us go home (Rentrons) before it grows dark (‘grow 
dark’ faire nuit). 23.1 say it that you may know it. 
24. You will succeed, provided you act with vigor. 25. I 
cannot depend on your promise, unless you give me the nec- 
essary security. 26. Wait till the rain is over. 

B.C. 27. He is the best playerI know. 28. Wisdom is the 
only thing the possession of which is certain. 29. You are 
the first friend I have met with in Paris. 30. This is the only 
hope that remains to me. 31. There are few men that can 
always hear the truth. 32. It is surprising that he has cared 
to doit. 33. Iam glad (or I am sorry) that you have come. 
34. I rejoice that you have succeeded. 35. It is a pity that you 
cannot come (07 have not come) earlier. 36. The tailor did not 
come, although he had promised me (add it: 250. b). 37. What- 
ever efforts men may make, their nothingness appears every- 
where. 38. His mind is always active, although he is sick 
and cannot work. 39. Although Homer, according to Horace, 
slumbers at times, he is nevertheless (il n’en est pas moins) 
the first of all poets. 40. However rich you are, do not despise 
the poor. 41. Whoever you are, trust in God alone. 42. He 
complains about your not keeping your word (or that you 
have not kept your word): obs. 323. B. . 


264 SYNTAX. 


(Indicatives and subjunctives.) 1. Your father ordered that you should 
do it (‘should do’ one verb-form). 2. The tribunal has decided that the 
donation was void. 3. I desire thathemaycome. 4. I hope he may come. 
5. I believe she will do it; do you believe she will doit? 6. He labors in 
order that he may be able to live. 7. He labors so that (de fagon que) he is 
able tolive. 8. Ihave come in order that (pour que) we may speak of our 
affairs. 9. Ishallcome, provided (pourvu que) hecomes. 10. I shall come 
if (si) he comes. 11. If he had listened to (cru) me, he would not have 
written verses. 12. Do you think I need your assurance? 138. Do you 
think I can rely on his assurance? 14. I shall not come, since he does 
- not write me. 15. Before he is torn (tr, Before one tears him) from us, 
suffer me to conceal him. 16. Do you know whether he will come? 
17. Do you know (the fact) that he has arrived? 18. Do you forget that 
Mary is my sister? 19. If you believe that this book is useful, I shall 
buy it. 20. If it were known (If one etc.) that you have spoken in his. 
behalf (pour lui), you would be hated. 21. I do not doubt that the 
marriage pleases you. 22. There can be no doubt (On ne saurait 
douter: 317. b) that the Germans used to purchase (= purchased: 
impf.) their wives. 23. Show me a way that leads to knowledge. 24. Show 
me the way that leads to Paris. 25. The best use one can make of his mind 
is to distrust it. 26. I know (that) he is the first one that has seen you here. 
27. He is the most learned man I know. 28. If you need a knife of 
which temper is good, here is one. 29. All (Yout) jaded as I am, I 
traverse all the city. 30. However powerful they may be (or are) I do 
not fear them. 31. I am delighted that you have that opinion of me. 
32. I rejoice that she has returned (render in two ways), 33. He com- 
plains that you have beaten him and torn his clothes (two ways). 


XVIII. 
Subjunctive in (quasi) Independent Clauses (388-339). 


1. (Long) live the emperor! 2. Heaven be blessed for it! 
3. May God watch over us. 4. May she succeed. 5. Would 
to God it were so. 6. Let him depart immediately, come who 
will. 7. Let Joad put a check upon (@) his savage zeal. 
8. Any (Une or Toute) hesitation might have ruined all. 9. If 
he had dared, he would have become angry. 10. I know no 
one better endowed. 





EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 265 


XIX. 
Infinitive (341-362). 


1. To hate is a torment, to love is the soul’s need. 2. To 
think and to act is to live. 3. I shall have him called (tr. I 
shall make call him). 4. You have let him fall. 5. I must 
(dois) go and see him to-night. 6. She intends to leave to- 
morrow. 7. The lawyer wishes to come this afternoon. 
8. They have gone to live at Paris. 9. She will come to 
visit me to-morrow. 10. It pleases her to see his attentions. 
11. It is a torment to hate; it is the soul’s need to love. 
12. It does not become you to speak thus. 13. Abstain from 
reading useless books. 14. He seems to like playing. 15. I 
forbid you to behave thus any longer. 16. Beware of falling 
into the water if you cannot swim. 17. He does not like (or 
He hates) to study. 18. You try in vain to deceive me. 
19. Religion teaches us to love our neighbors as ourselves. 
20. He aspires to win my approbation. 21. He endeavors 
to study. 22. I have made him decide (tr. decided him) to 
leave. 23. I have just seen (cf. 353, venir) her. 24. I come to 
see her. 25. If I should happen to die, what would you do? 

1. I begin to understand you. 2. Ithasbeguntorain. 3. He continues 
reading. 4. I shall continue to read this afternoon. 5.I beg (demande) 
to speak to you. 6. I ask (demande) you to listen tome. 7. I defy him 
to go there. 8. I challenge him to play at billiards (au billiard). 9. He 


came near (‘come near’ = ‘fail’: manquer or faillir) falling. 10. He failed 
to fulfil his engagements. 


XX. 
Participles (364-371). 


1. A young man who knows (tr. knowing) his interest will 
not neglect his studies. 2. I saw the letter-carrier going to 
the post-office. 3. That is a convincing proof. 4. She is as 
pale as a withered flower. 5. This school-boy’s letter is well 


266. SYNTAX. 


written. 6. Selfish men are despised. 7. Concealed enmity 
(pl.) is dangerous. 8. Here is the letter (which) I have 
received. 9. The affairs you have undertaken are of a dif- 
ficult nature. 10. Where are your gloves? I have lost them. 
11. I have lost my gloves. 12. She stood up (comp. tense of 
se lever). 138. All your relatives have rejoiced at your happi- 
ness. 14. They presented flowers to each other (se). 
15. The flowers which they presented to each other were 
exquisite. 16. He died seeing his friends around him. 

1. This is a tiresome play. 2. That was a fatiguing march. 3. All 
were welcome, except you and me (two ways). 4. The years that I have 
labored on this work are not afew. 5. The three leagues she has walked 
have tired her. 6. Have you some flowers? Yes, he has given me some 
(en). 7. You know the good opinion I have already conceived of it (en). 
8. I am fond of flowers; I have gathered some. 9. The letter I supposed 
you would receive, has arrived at last. 10. I made her come. “11. He 
kept us waiting. 12. He has written as many letters as he could. 
18. Even while scolding him she loved him. 14. He met his sister 
returning home (= on her way home); he met his sister while on his 
way home. 


XXI. 
Negation (372-391). 


1. Have you seen him? No. 2. His mother, but not his 
sister, is here. 3. Has he any friends? Not many. 4. He 
has not come. 5. I have not written to my banker about it. 
6. It is bad not to study; (or not to have studied). 7. He 
will never come; he will come no more; he will hardly come ; 
he will nowise come. 8. I do not know anybody here. 9. The 
paper said nothing about it. 10. Nothing is better than truth, 
even if it is bitter. 11. I dare not go there. 12. The unfor- 
tunate widow does not cease weeping. 13. I could (sawrais) 
not doit. 14. Iam not able (cannot) to do it, and I don’t know 
whether the girl (servant-girl) is. 15. No matter, I shall do 
it. 16. God forbid that this misfortune should happen. 17. I 





EXERCISES TO THE SYNTAX. 267 


see no one that does not love you. 18. If you are cold why 
don’t you put on your overcoat? 19. I have few friends that 
are not yours. 20. Is there a man that does not complain of 
his fellow creatures (semblables). 21. Take care that she 
does not fall. 22. I shall prevent him from going out. 23. I 
fear this may be true. 24. I shall go to see him (le trouver), 
lest he:start without my seeing him. 25. I do not doubt that 
this is true. 26. Do you doubt that this is true? 27. I doubt 
that this is true. 28. I do not deny that this is true. 29. Do 
you deny that he is guilty? 30. I deny that he is guilty. 
31. Do you not deny that he is guilty? 32. We had not seen 
each other for six years. 33. How has she been (se porter 
‘be’ with ref. to health) since I saw her? 34. He is older 
than I thought. 35. The boat was quicker than he had cal- 
culated. 36. My shoemaker has more work than he wants. 
37. The state of my health is worse than you imagine. 
38. Your teacher will not come, unless you write to him. 
39. Neither the shoes nor the boots have been sent. 40. This 
idle boy neither works nor plays. 41. These laborers can 
neither read nor write. 42. He knew neither that I had seen 
you, nor that I have spoken to you. 

1. I say yes (=I protest). 2. He believes not. 3. You will come, will 
you not? (transl. isitnot?) 4. No more tears, no more sorrows, my friend. 
5. God has created the world from nothing. 6. She did not say a word. 
7. I shall not do it, unless you do it. 8. That house is not far from being 
three miles from the city. 9. We have not seen each other for many 
years. 10. He is a different man from what (que je ne) I thought. 11. He 


has not seen me nor spoken to me (two ways). 12. My neighbors will not 
pay this expense, nor I either. ; 


XXII. 
Other Indeclinables (391-406). 


1. This soldier is as brave as he is kind. 2. She is not so 
’ wise as she appears. 3. That young fellow reads as much as 


268 SYNTAX. 


you, but he does not work so much. 4. The contractor made 
(a gagné) at least 200 dollars. 5. If my tailor is not rich, he 
has at least something to live on (de quoi vivre). 6. That 
course is the wisest; besides it is also the most just. 7. This 
storekeeper is rich, but his brother is yet more so (or is yet 
more so than he). 8. As for my cousin, he does not know 
when he willcome. 9. The engineer told me he would come 
and bring his plan. 10. Scarcely had I arrived when the 
curate came to see me. 11. If the doctor does not come, it 
is because he is sick. 12. Both rich and poor must die. 
13. Whether he comes or writes, I shall be contented. 14. I 
will have it so (Je le veux), since it is right. 15. While my 
uncle was in Paris, I travelled through Switzerland. 16. This 
stuff is red, whilst that is pink. 


ee 


ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 


(ADAPTED, IN THE MAIN, FOR EQUIVALENT TRANSLATION). 


XXII. 


A child of six years of age, being introduced into company for his 
extraordinary abilities, was asked by a clergyman where God is, with the 
proffered reward of an orange, if he should answer (308) correctly. “ Tell 
me,” replied the boy, “ where he is not, and I will give you two” (supply 
en ‘of them’). 


XXIV. 


Dumoulin, a (204. B. 2) famous physician, was sinking (‘be sinking’ étre 
a Vagonie). He was surrounded by several of his colleagues, who deplored 
his loss. “Gentlemen,” said he to them, “I leave behind me three great 
physicians.” Each one thought he was (transl. thought to be: 862) 
one of the three: he was urged (transl. ‘one urged him’) to name 
them. They are,” he answered (417), “ water (195), exercise, and diet.” 


XXYV. 


King (187) Xerxes, astonished at the tranquillity of the Lacedemonians, 
waited a few (282) days to (pour) allow them time for reflection. On the 





2 
x 
4 
4 
a 
a. 
¢ 


ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 269 
fifth day (simply Le cinquiéme) he wrote to Leonidas, “ If thou wilt sub- 
mit, I shall give thee the empire of Greece.” Leonidas responded, “I prefer 
(‘ prefer,’ aimer mieux) dying for my country to enslaving it.” A second 
letter from the king contained only these words, “Surrender (Rends-moi) 
thy arms!” — Leonidas wrote below, “Come and take (362) them!” 


XXXVI. 


Cornelia, daughter of the great Scipio, and wife of Consul Sempronius, 
was in a company of Roman ladies who were displaying their precious stones 
and jewels. Cornelia was asked (use on) to show also hers. This wise 
Roman woman (one word) ordered (transi. made) her children to ap- 
proach. These she had brought up with great care for the glory of their 
country, and she said in showing them: “ There is (voici) my orna- 
ment, there my jewels.” 


XXVITI. 


There was a time when everybody (tout le monde) used to say 
(= ‘said,’ impf.: 806) big (gros) instead of great (grand); a big thing, 
a big house, a big reputation, etc. As Louis XIV was one day at the 
house of (chez) a minister where he met Boileau, he indicated to the latter 
that he did not like this novel expression. “It is surprising,” said B., 
“that people (on) everywhere will use (mettre) big for great. For instance, 
there is much (bien) difference between Louis the Great and Louis the 
Big” (usually “Fat” = Louis VI). 


XXVIII. 


An Arab, having lost his way in the desert, had not eaten anything for 
two days, and saw himself compelled to die from hunger. Passing near 
one of those wells where caravans come to water their camels, he sees on 
the sand a small leather-bag. He picks it up, he feels it: “Allah be 
blessed!” he cries; “These are, I believe, dates or hazel-nuts.” Full of 
this sweet hope, he hastens to open the bag; but at the sight of what it 
contained he exclaimed with disappointment (transl. pain), “ Alas, I 
thought it was at least hazel-nuts, and it is only pearls!” 


XXIX. 


A man who had twelve sons made them assemble around his death-bed, 
and as they were waiting for his last blessing, he showed them a bundle 
of arrows, and ordered each to try to break them thus bound together. 
None of the sons could do it (y parvenir). Then he told them to make the 


270 SYNTAX. 


same attempt by taking the arrows one after the other. In this way they 
broke them with ease. Then the father called their attention to 
(attira leur attention sur, or les rendit attentifs a) this emblem of the power 
of concord. “Observe, my children,” said he to them, “that as long as 
you remain united, no one will be able to conquer you.” 


XXX. 


When Boabdil, the (204. B. 2) last king of Grenada, was obliged to aban- 
don the kingdom of his fathers, he stopped on the summit of Mount Padul. 
From this high place was discovered (transl. one disc.) the sea where 
the unfortunate monarch was about (‘ be about’ aller) to embark for Africa ; 
also Grenada and the Xenil, on the border of which the tents of Ferdinand 
and Isabella arose, were seen. At the sight of this beautiful country and 
the cypresses that yet marked here and there the tombs of the Mussulmans, 
Boabdil began to (se mit a) shed tears. The sultana Aixa, his mother, 





who accompanied him in his exile, together with the lords (grands) that _ 


once composed his court, said to him: “ Weep now as a woman for a 
kingdom, which thou couldst not defend as a man.” — They descended the 
mountain, and Grenada disappeared from their eyes forever. 


XXXII. 


Charles XII, king of Sweden, was born in Stockholm on the 27th of 
June, 1662. He lost his mother in his eleventh year, and was hardly 
fifteen years old when his father died. According to the will of the late 
king, he should (317. c) not be of age before he was past (qu’apres 
avoir passé) his eighteenth year; but on the proposition. of the minister 
Piper, the diet transferred the government to him as early as (déa) 
1697. In the year 1700, Peter I, emperor of Russia, Frederick IV, king of 
Denmark, and August, elector of Saxony, declared war against him. — He 
attacked them one after the other, and gained at first brilliant victories, 
among others that of Narva, where with less than 8,000 Swedes he defeated 
80,000 Russians, of whom more than twenty thousand remained on the 
field of battle, while he lost only six hundred men. But later, when he 
penetrated into Russia, he lost the decisive battle of Pultawa, and was 
forced to take refuge on the Turkish territory with a feeble escort of two 
hundred and fifty Swedes. 


XXXIT. 


The old hunter Maurice had in his room a starling which he had 
brought up, and which had learned to articulate some words. When he 


ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 271 


said for instance, “Starling, where are you (2d sing.)?” the bird always 
answered “ Here I am” (Me voila).— Little (def. art.) Charley, the son 
of a neighbor, liked the bird (very) much and often paid (transl. made) 
it visits. One day he came to see the starling while the hunter was absent; 
he quickly seized the bird, put it into his pocket, and would fain (transl. 
wished to) steal away with his larceny. But at this moment the hunter 
entered his home. He thought he would amuse the little boy by (en) ask- 
ing as usual “Starling, where are you? ”—“ Here I am!” cried with all 
his might (pl.) the bird that was concealed in the boy’s pocket. And thus 
the little theft was betrayed. 


XXXITT. 


One day Frederick the Great rang the bell (simply, ‘rang’), and no 
one came. He opened the door and found his page asleep in an arm-chair. 
He went up to (s’avancer a) him and was about (aller) to awaken him, 
when he noticed the corner of a letter (un bout de billet) which stuck 
out of his pocket. He became curious to know what it was, took it and 
read it. It was a letter from the young man’s mother, who thanked him 
for (de ce qu’il) sending her a part of his salary to console her in her 
poverty. She ended by saying that God would bless him for (a@ cause de) 
his love to her. When the king had read (use pr, pple.) this note, he took a 
purse of ducats, slipped it with the letter into the pocket of the page, and 
returned softly to his room. Soon (Un peu) after he rung the bell so loud 
(fort) that the page was awakened (refl.) and came to the king. “You 
(Tu) have slept well!” said Frederick. The page tries to excuse himself, 
and in his embarrassment he puts his hands into his pocket. He feels the 
purse, he draws it out, and reaches the climax (se trouve au comble) of 
astonishment and confusion ; he grows pale, and looks at the king, shedding 
a torrent of tears, unable (sans pouvoir) to utter a single word. “What 
is the matter?” (Qu’est-ce? or Qu’as-tu?) says the king, —“ What is the 
matter, then? ”—“ Ah, Sire,” said the young man, throwing himself at 
his feet, “They (on) wish to ruin me, I don’t know what this money 
means (ce que c'est que cet argent) which I find in my pocket.” — “ My 
friend,” said Frederick, “God often sends us good things (le bien) 
while we are sleeping; send int to your Bieler and assure her that I shall 
take care of her and of you.” 


XXXIV. 
Servilius defends himself before the people. 


“If you (trans/. one) have made me come here to demand from me (me) 


272 SYNTAX, 


an account of what took place in the last battle where I commanded, I am 
ready to inform you about it; but if it is only a pretext to destroy me, as 
I suspect (add ‘it’), spare me useless words: here you have (voila) my 
body and life which I surrender to you: you may dispose of them. — What, 
_ then, is my crime? What fault have I committed hitherto? I am accused 
of having lost many men (use monde for ‘men’) in the last battle. But 
who is the general that can fight (transl. deliver) battles against a warlike 
nation that defends itself courageously, without blood being shed on both 
sides (de part et d’autre)? What divinity has bound itself to (envers) the 
Roman people to make it gain victories without any loss? Whom can 
you make (fera-t-on) believe that glory is to be gained otherwise than by 
great perils? I joined battle (J’en suis venu aux mains) with more 
numerous troops than those you had confided to me. I routed their legions, 
which finally fled. What remained for me to do? Who among you 


could have refused to accept [ett pu (817, 338. B) se refuser a] the 


victory that came to meet me? Was it even in my power to restrain your 
soldiers, who were carried away by their courage (tr. whom their courage 
carried away) and pursued with ardor a terrified enemy ? ” 


XXXIV. 


Snow is the product of a thick fog, which the cold changes into an in- 
finite multitude (transl. infinity ) of little imperceptible icicles, which, in 
coalescing, for the most part form light irregular flakes that fall with more 
or less abundance, and cover the earth with a more or less thick layer, the 
effect of which is to protect against the extremest cold those plants which 
it conceals. It sometimes happens, and chiefly when the air is calm, that 
every particle of snow has the form of a little star with (@) six rays of 
an extreme delicacy, and which resemble little feathers. 

The snow hardens at last (a /a longue); it even changes to ice, when 
it is powerfully pressed. In countries where it falls abundantly, as in 
Nevada, there are mountains where the snow never melts, and it is that 
snow which gives rise to glaciers, which are enormous masses of ice. When 
the snow is amassed on very steep slopes, a moment arrives when it can- 
not sustain itself, and then occurs (‘occur’ se faire) what is called an 
avalanche, that is (c’est % dire) a kind of snow-slip, which carries along, 
covers, or crushes everything in its path. 





VOCABULARY TO THE PRECEDING EXERCISES. 


Numerals, ordinary pronouns or pronominal adjectives, and proper names 
spelled alike in French and English, are omitted in this vocabulary. For 
other references than those given below, consult the grammar-index. Words 
and phrases considered in the paragraphs heading each exercise are to be 
studied specially under their respective paragraphs. 

Abbreviations - n. = noun; adj. = adjective ; v.= verb; irr. = irregular 
(consult § 161). Notice also that ‘h=A aspirated (23). 


A. 
a, un; distrib’ve (as in 
‘a year’ etc.) par. 
abandon, abandonner. 
ability, talent, m. 
able, capable, be —, pou- 
voir (irr.). 
about (=nearly) environ. 
absent, absent. 
abstain, s’abstenir, irr. 
abundance, abondanee, f. 
abundant, abondant. 
abundantly, en abon- 
dance. 
abuse, v., abuser de. 
accompany, accompa- 
gner. 
accomplish, accomplir. 
according to, selon. 
account, compte, m. 
accuse, accuser. 
accustom, accoutumer. 





a 
acquaintance, connais- 
sance, f. 


act, v., agir; -ive, actif. 
action, action, f. 

actor, acteur, m. 
admire, admirer. 
advice, conseil, m. 
advise, conseiller. 

affair, affaire, f. . 
affect, affecter, toucher. 
afraid: be —, avoir peur. 
Africa, Afrique, f. 
afternoon, aprés-midi, m. 


age, dge, m. of (6 etc.) | 


years of —, dgé de (6 
etc.) ans; of —, ma- 
jeur. 

agree, s’accorder. 

air, air, m. 

alas, hélas. 

Alexander, Alexandre. 

all, tout (292). 





alleviate, adoucir. 

alike, egal. 

allow, permettre, irr. 

alone, seul. 

already, déja. 

also, aussi. 

although, quotque (380). 

always, toujours. 

amass, amasser. 

America, Amérique, f. 

American, Américain, m. 

amiable, aimable. 

among(st), entre, parmi 
(216. d). 

amount, somme, f.; total, 
m. 

amuse, amuser; faire 
plaisir a. 

ancient, ancien. 

angry, faché; be (be- 
come) —, étre faché, 
se mettre en colére, 


274 


animal, animal, m. 

animate, animer. 

answer, V., répondre. 

answer, n., réponse, f. 

any (45, 199). 

appeal, en appeler. 

appear, paraitre, irr. 

apple, pomme, f. 

appoint (to office), nom- 
mer; (settle) désigner. 

apprehend (= fear), ap- 
préhender. 

approach, tr., approcher 
or s’approcher (cf. 211); 
intr., s’approcher. 

approach, n., approche, 
z 

approbation, 
tion, f. 

Arab, Arabe, m. 

ardor, ardeur, f. 

arise, se lever, s’élever. 

arm, n. (weapon), arme, 
f.; (limb), bras, m. 

arm, ¥., armer. 

arm-chair, fauteuil, m. 

army, armeée, f. 

around, autour de. _ [f. 

arrive,arriver; -al,arrivée, 

arrow, jléche, f. 

art, art, m. 

articulate, articuler. 

as, adv. (before adj.), 
aussi, (after) que; — 
much or many (as) 
autant (que); — long 
as, aussi longtemps que ; 


approba- 


— soon as, aussitét 
que, des que. 
as, conj., comme; de 





VOCABULARY. 


(211.f); en (204. A.2); 
pour, (=when) lorsque. 
ascend, monter, faire l’as- 
cension (de). 
ashamed: be —, avoir 
honte. 
Asia, Asie, f. 
ask, demander; —a ques- 
tion faire une question. 
asleep, endormi; fall —, 
s’endormir. 
aspire, asptrer. 
assemble, rassembler. 
assent, n., assentiment, m. 
assist, assister. 
assure, assurer. 
assurance, assurance. 
astonish, étonner. 
astonishing, étonnant. 
astonishment, 
ment, m. 
at,a,; en, dans; de; par; 
(— the house of, —’s, 
chez) ;—all, du tout ; 
— first, d’abord; — 
last, enfin ; — least, du 
moins (au moins : 894) ; 
— times, parfois. 
attack, attaquer. 
attempt, n., essai, m. 
attentive, attentif. 
attention, attention, f. 
August(us), Auguste. 
aunt, tante, f. 
avalanche, avalanche, f. 
awaken, réveiller. 


étonne- 


B. 
back: be —, étre de 
retour, 


bad, mauvais, 





bag, sac, m. 

banker, banquier, m. 

bare, nu: bare-headed. 
nu-téte or téte nue; 


barefoot (ed), nu-pieds 
or pteds nus. [219, 
note 4.] ‘ 


bark, n., écorce, f. 

battle, n., bataille, f. 

beat, battre (134.3), 
Srapper. 

beautiful, beau (75). 

because, parce que, puis- 
que. [405.] — 

become, devenir, irr.;. 
(suit) seoir (161), con- 
venir, irr.; — angry, 
se mettre en colére. 

before, avant, devant. 
[216.] 

beg, prier. 

begin, commencer. 

behave, se conduire, irr. 

behead, décapiter. 

behind, derriére, aprés. 

believe, croire, irr. 

belong, appartenir, irr. 

below, sous, dessous, au- 
dessous de. 

best, adj., le meilleur ; 
adv., le mieux; — 
thing, mieux or la 
meilleure chose. 

betray, trahir; (show) 
révéler, montrer. 

between, entre. 

bewail, plaindre, irr.; 
déplorer. 

beware, prendre garde 
(of de), se garder. 





big, gros (74), grand. 

bind (together), lier ; 
bind one’s self, s’en- 
gager. 

bird, oiseau, m. 

bitter, amer. 

black, noir. 

bless, bénir. 

blessing, bénédiction, f. 

blood, sang, m. 

blue, bleu. 

body, corps, m. 

bold, ‘hardi, courageuzx. 

book, livre, m. 

bookseller, /ibraire, m. 

boot, botte, f. 

border, bord, m. 

born, né; be —, naitre 
(with étre), irr. 

borrow, emprunter (of, @). 

boy, garcgon, m. 

box, boite, f. 

branch, branche, f. 

brave, brave (222), cou- 
rageux. 

bread, pain, m. 

break, casser, rompre. 

breath, haleine, f. 

brethren, cf. brother. 

brilliant, brillant, écla- 
tant. 

bring, apporter (lead), 
amener ; — up, élever. 

brother, frére, m.; (= 
colleague, pl. breth- 
ren), confrére, m. 

build, batir. 

bundle (of twigs, etc.), 
Jfaisceau, m. 

busy one’s self, s’occuper. 





VOCABULARY. 


buy, acheter. 
by, par, de, a. 


C. 


Cesar, César. 

calculate, calculer, com- 
pter. 

call, nommer, appeler ; — 
upon, aller (irr., with 
étre) voir. 

calm, calme, tranquille. 

camel, chameau, m. 


| can, pouvoir, irr.; I can 


not, je ne saurais 
(817, b). 

Canada, Canada, m. 

candid, franc (76.1). 

captain, capitaine, m. 

caravan, caravane, f. 

care, n., soin, m.; take 
—, prendre (or avoir) 
soin. 

care, V., se soucier, 

carriage, voiture, f. 

carry, porter; — along, 
entrainer ; — away, em- 
porter. 

castle, chdteau, m. 

cat, chat, m. 

cause, n., cause, f.; (mo- 
tive) raison, f. 

cease, cesser. 

celebrate, célébrer. 

cent, cent, m. (Am.=a 
Fr. sou). 

certain, certain. 

certainly, certainement. 

challenge, défier. 

change, changer. 

chapter, chapitre, m. 





275 


character, caractére, m. 
charitable, charitable. 
charity, charitié, f. 
Charles, -ey, Charles. 
check, n., frein, m. 
cheese, fromage, m. 


chiefly, principalement, 
surtout. 

child, enfant, m. 

Christmas, Noé/l, m.; 


— -present, cadeau de 
Noél ; (étrennes, ‘ new- 
year’s gift’). 

citizen, citoyen, m. 

city, ville, f. 

clergyman, ecclésiastique, 
ministre ; (priest) pré- 
tre. 

clerk, commis, m. 

cloth, drap, m. 

clothes, habits, m. pl. 

coalesce, se réunir. 

coffee, café, m. 

cold, adj., froid ; be (feel) 
—, avoir froid ; be — 
(weather) faire froid. 

cold, n., frotd, m.; froi- 
deur, f. 

colleague, collégue, m. 

collection, collection, f. 

combat, n., combat, m. 

come, venir ; —in, entrer ; 
—to meet, marcher 
devant ; aller au devant 
de. 

comedy, comedie, f. 

command, commander. 

commit, commettre, irr. 

company, société, f. 

compel, contraindre, irr. 


276 


complain, se plaindre, 
irr. 
compliment, compliment, 
m. 
compose, composer. 
comrade, camarade, m. 
conceal, cacher, celer; 
dissimuler. 
conceive, concevoir, irr. 
concord, concorde, f. 
conduct, v., conduire, irr. 
conduct, n., conduite, f. 
confide, con/fier. 
confusion, confusion, f. 
conquer, vaincre, irr. 
consent, consentir, irr. 
consider, considérer, 
(think) réfléchir. 
considerable, conside- 
rable. 
console, soulager. 
consul, consul, m. 
contain, contenir, irr. 
‘content, content. 
continue, continuer. 
continuous, continu. 
contract, contrat, m. 
contractor, contractant, 
m.; entrepreneur, m. 
convince, convaincre, irr. 
copper, cuivre, m. 
copy-book, cahier, m. 
cordial, cordial. 
correctly, correctement ; 
(in tune) juste. 
cost, v., cotiter. 
cost, n., (expense) frais, 
m.; (value) priz. 
country, (gen’ly) pays, 
m.; (region) contrée, 





VOCABULARY. 


f.; (mative c.) patrie, 
f.; (as opposed to the 
city) campagne, f. 

courage, courage, m. 

courageously, 
geusement. 

course, cours, m. 

court, cour, f. 

cousin, cousin, m.; cou- 
sine, f. 

cover, couvrir, irr. 

covet, rechercher. 

create, créer. 

crime, crime, m. 

crowd, foule, f. 

crush, écraser. 

cry, crier,— out, s’€crier ; 
— for help, crier au 
secours. 

curate, curé, m. 

curious, curteux. 

custom, usage, m. 

cypress, cypres, m. 


coura- 


D. 
dangerous, dangereuz. 


dare, oser. 


dark, obscure; be —, 
faire nuit. 

date (the fruit), datte, f. 

daughter, fille, f. 

day, jour, m. 

dead, mort. 

dear, cher. 

death, mort, f. [ mort. 

death-bed, lit (m.) de 

debt, dette, f. 

deceased, défunt. 

deceive, v., tromper. 

deception, déception, f. 





decide, décider, tr. or 
intr. (as tr. also= 
‘cause to decide, in- 
duce’). 

decision, décision, f. 

declare, déclarer. 

deep, profond. 

defeat, v., défaire. 

defend, défendre. 

defy, défier. 

degrade, degrader. 

delicacy, délicatesse, f. 

delicate, délicieux, déi- 
cat, 

delighted, charmeé. 

delightful, délicieux. 

deliver, livrer; délivrer. 

Denmark, Danemark, m. 

deny, nier, dénier. 

depend, dependre(on,de). 
deplore, déplorer. 
descend, descendre. 

desert, n., désert, m. 

desire, désirer. 

despicable, méprisable. 
despise, mépriser. 
destroy, détruire, irr.; 

faire (irr.) périr. 
devote, dévouer. 

die, mourir, irr. 

1. diet (regulated food), 
diéte, f.; (food) nour- 
riture, f. 

2. diet (legislative as- 
sembly), diéte, f., (les) 
états, m. pl. 

difference, diffrence, f. | 

different, différent. 


differently,différemment, 


diversement. 





difficult, difficile. : 

dignity, dignité, f. 

diligent, diligent. 

dine, diner. 

disappear, disparaitre, 
irr, 

discover, découvrir, irr. 

disgrace, n., déshonneur, 
m.; honte, f. 

disgrace, v., déshonorer, 
avilir. 

display, étaler. 

dispose, disposer. 

distrust, v., se défier de. 

divine, divin. 

divinity, divinité. 

do, faire, irr.; rendre. 

doctor, médecin, m. 

document, document, m. 

dog, chien, m. 

dollar, dollar, m. 

donation, donation, f. 

door, porte, f. 

doubt, n., doute, m. 

doubt, v., douter. 

draw (out), tirer. 

dress (one’s self), s’ha- 
biller. [son, f. 

drink, boire, irr.; n. bois- 

ducat, ducat, m. 

dull, (tedious) ennu- 
yeux ; (stupid) stupide; 
(blunt) émoussé. 

duty, devoir, m. 


E. 
each, adj., chaque;— 
one, n., chacun;— 


other,/’un/’autre (294); 
se (150). 





VOCABULARY. 


early, de bonne heure. 
earth, terre, f. 
ease, facilité, f. 
eat, manger. 
effect, effet, m. 
effort, effort, m. 
Egyptian, adj., @gyptien ; 
n., Egyptien, m. 
elector, électeur, m. 
embark, s’embarquer. 
embarrassment, em- 
barras, m. 
emblem, embléme, m. 
emigrant, émigrant, m. 
Emily, Emilie. 
emperor, empereur, m. 
empire, empire, m. 
enclosed, inclus, ci-joint. 
end, n., fin, f.; (extrem- 
ity) bout, m. 
end, v., finir. 
endeavor, s’efforcer. 
endowed (favored), par- 
tagé. ; 
energy, énergie, f. [m. 
engagement, engagement, 
engineer, ingénieur, m. 
English, adj., anglais or 
d’ Angleterre; n., An- 
glais, m. pl. 
Englishman, Anglais, m. 
engraving, gravure, f. 
enjoy, jouir de, posséder; 
refl. s’amuser, se ré- 
jour. | 
enjoyment, plaisir, m.; 
jouissance, f. 
enlighten, iluminer. 
enmity, inimitié, f. 
enormous, enorme. 





277 


enrich, enrichir. 
enslave, asservir, irr. 
enter, entrer. 

envy, envie, f. 


renvy, V., envier. 


equally, également. 
error, erreur, f.; faute, f. 
escape, tr., échapper a; 
intr., s’échapper. _ 
escort, escorte, f. 
essay, essai, m. 
Europe, Europe, f. 
even, adv., méme. 
ever, (always) toujours; 
(at any time) jamais. 
every one, chacun. 
everybody, tout le monde. 
everywhere, partout. 
excellent, excellent. 
except, excepté (219. 4). 
exclaim, s’écrier. 
excuse, excuse, f. 
excuse, V., excuser. 
exercise, exercice, m.; 
(tranl’n into a foreign 
lang.) theme, m. 
exile, exil. 
expect, attendre. 
expense, dépense, f.; 
dépens, m. pl. 
expose, exposer. 
expression, expression, f. 
exquisite, exquis. 
extend, tr. ,étendre; intr., 
s’étendre. 
extraordinary, extraordi- 
naire. 
extreme, extréme, le plus 
grand. 
eye, el, m. (pl. yeux). 


278 


FE. 

fact, fait, m. 

fade (away), passer. 

faithful, fidéle. 

fall, tomber. 

false, faux. 

falseness, perfidie, f. 

family, famille, f. 

famous, fameuz, célébre. 

‘farthing,’ sou, m. 

fate, destin, sort, m. 

father, pere, m. 

fatiguing, fatigant. 

fault, (mistake) faute, f.; 
(defect) défaut, m. 

fear, v., craindre, irr.; 
appréhender. [f. 

fear, n., crainte, f.; peur, 

feather, plume, f. 

feeble, fazble. 

feel, sentir; (touch) 
toucher. 

feeling, sentiment, m. 

few, peu (de); -er, moins 
(de). 

field, champ, m.;— of bat- 
tle, champ de bataille. 

finally, a la fin, enfin. 

find, trouver. 

fine, beau (75). 

finish, finir. 

fire, feu, m. 

first: at —, d’abord. 

flake, flocon, m. 

flattery, flatterie, f. 

flee, fuir, prendre (irr.), 
la fuite. 

flower, fleur, f. 

fly, voler. 

fog, brouillard, m. 





VOCABULARY. 


follow, suivre. 

folly, folie, f.; sottise, f. 
fond: be — ef, aimer. 
foot, pied, m. 


| for, pour; (during) pen- 


dant ; (since) depuis. 
forbid, défendre. 
force, forcer, contraindre. 
forget, oublier. 
form, n., forme, f. 
form, v., former. 
fortitude, fortitude, f. 
fortune, fortune, f. 
France, Frauce, f. 
franc, franc, m. 
Frederick, Frédéric. 
French, francais, de 
France. 
Frenchman, Frangais,m. 
friend, am7, m. 
frighten, effrayer. 
from, de; (of time) 
depuis. 
fruit, fruit, m. 
fulfil, remplir. 
full, plein. 


G. 
gain, gagner, acquérir ; 
(a victory) remporter. 
gather, cueillir, irr. 
general, général, m. 
gentleman, monsieur (pl. 
messieurs); (man of 
rank) gentilhomme (pl. 
gentilshommes. 
gentleness, douceur, f. 
German, adj., allemand, 
d’ Allemagne; n., Alle- 
mand, f. 





Germany, Allemagne, f. 

get, obtenir, irr. ; recevoir, 
irr.; (when expletive 
it is untranslated). 

girl, fille, f. 

give, donner. 

glacier, glacier, m. 

glad or very glad, bien 
aise. 

glorious, glorieux. 

glory, gloire, f. 

glove, gant, m. 


go, aller, irr.; — out, 
sortir; — away, s’en 
aller. 

gold, or, m. 

good, bon. 


good-natured, bénin (f. 
70), affable. 

govern, gouverner. 

government, gouverne- 
ment, Mm. 

grandson, petit-fils, m. 

grant, accorder, (admit) 
avouer. 

grave, n., tombeau, m. 

grave, adj.,grave, sérieux. 

great, grand. 

Great Britain, Grande- 
Bretagne, f. 

Greek, grec (76.1). 

green, vert. 

Grenada, Grenade, f. 

grow, croitre, irr.; — 
pale, pdlir. 

guard, garde, f.; (watch- 
man) garde, m. 

guardian (of an orphan. 
etc.), tuteur ; (watch- 
man, keeper) gardien, 


guilty, coupable. 

gun, fusil (/ silent: 23,-2/), 
m.; (cannon) canon. 

Gustavus Adolphus, 
Gustave Adolphe. 


H. 

half,adj.,demi; s.,demie, 
moitré. 

hand, main, f. 

handkerchief, mouchoir, 
m. 

happen, arriver. 

happiness, bonheur, m. 

happy, heureur. 

hard, dur. 

harden, durcir. 

hardly, @ peine. 

harp, ‘harpe. 

hasten, tr., ‘Adter, accélé- 
rer; intr., se ‘hdter, se 
depécher, s’empresser. 

hate, ‘hair (182.3). 

hatred, ‘haine, f. 

hazel-nut, noisette, f. 

head, ¢éte, f. 

head-ache, mal de téte, 
m. 

health, santé, f. 

healthful, sain, salubre. 

hear, entendre, ouir, irr. 

heaven, ciel, m. 

heir, héritier, m. 

help, v., aider. 

help, n., aide, f. 

Henry, ‘Henri. 

here, ici; — and there, 
ga et la. 

hero, ‘héros, m. 

hesitation, Aésitation, f. 





VOCABULARY. 


hat, chapeau, m. 

high, ‘haut, grand, élevé; 
and cf. 

hill, colline, f. 

history, histoire, f. 

hitherto, jusqu’ict. 

homage, hommage, m. 

home, used adverbially, 
chez moi (toi, etc. ace’g 
to whose home is 
meant); & la maison. 

homely, simple, laid. 

Homer, Homére. 

honest, honnéte. 

honor, n., honneur, m. 

honor, v., honorer. 

honorable, honorable, 
digne d’honneur. 

hope, v., espérer. 

hope, n., espérance, f.; 
espoir, mM. 

horse, cheval, m. 

horseback : 
cheval. 

hour, heure, f. 

house, maison, f.; at my 
(thy, etc.) —, chez 
mot (tot, etc.). 

however, advy., quelque 
(or tout) ... que; conj., 
cependant, pourtant. 

hunger, faim, f. 

hungry: be —, avoir 
faim. 

hunter, chasseur, m. 

husband, mari, m. 


“ 


on —, a 


Zz 
ice, glace, f. 
icicle, glagon, m. 





279 


idle, paresseux. 
idleness, paresse, f. 
ill, adv., mal. [giner. 
imagine, imaginer, s’ima- 
immediately, tout de suite. 
immense, zmmense. 
impossible, mpossible. 
in, en, dans, a. 
inch, pouce, m. 
India, Jndes, f. pl. 
indicate, témoigner. 
industrious, industrieuxr. 
infinite, infini. 
infirm, infirme. 
inform, instruire, irr. 
ingratitude, ingratitude, 
f. 
inkstand, encrier, m. 
inspector, inspecteur, m. 
instance: for —, par 
exemple. 
instruction, instruction, f. 
intend, compter. 
interest, intérét, m. 
interesting, intéressant. 
introduce, introduire, 
irr. ; présenter. 
iron, fer, m. 
irregular, irrégulier. 
Isabella, Zsabelle. 
Italy, Jtalie, f. 
J. 
jaded, lassé. 
January, janvier, m, 
jewel, bijou, m. 
judge, juge, m. 
July, juillet, m. 
June, juin, m. 
just, juste. 
justice, justice, f. 


K. 

keep, tenir, irr.; garder, 
retenir, irr.;— away, se 
tenir éloigné, s’éloigner. 

key, clef, f. 

kill, tuer. 

kilogram, kilogramme, m. 

kindness, bonté. 

king, roi, m. 

kingdom, royaume, m. 

knife, couteau, m. 

know, savoir, irr.; (pe 
acquainted with) con- 
naitre, irr. 

knowledge, connaissance, 
i 

L. 

labor, v., travailler. 

laborious, /aborieux. 

lad, gargon, m. 

lady, dame, f.; young —, 
demoiselle, f. 

language, langue, f. 

larceny, /arcin, m. 

large, gros, grand. 

last, dernier; at —, enfin. 

late (of the dead), feu 
(210, note 3). 

later, plus tard. 

Lacedemonian, Lacédé- 
monien, m. 

laugh, rire, irr. 

law, loi, f. 

lawyer, avocat, m. 

layer, couche, f. 

lead, plomb, m. 

lead, conduire, irr.; mener. 

league (= ab. 3 miles), 
lieue, f. 





VOCABULARY. 


learn, apprendre, irr. 

learned, savant. 

learning, science, f. 

least, le moins ; at —, du 
moins (au moins: 394). 

leather-bag, sac de cuir, 
m. 

leave, tr., (leave behind) 
laisser; (abandon) 
quitter; intr., partir, 
irr.; disparaittre, irr. 

legion, légion, f. 

lend, préter. 

less, moins, 

letter, lettre, f. 

letter-carrier, facteur, m. 

life, vie, f. 

light, adj., léger. 

like, adv., comme. 

like, v., aimer. 

listen, écouter. 

literature, littérature, f. ; 
lettres, f. pl. 

little, adv., peu. 

lieutenant, lieutenant, m. 

live (be alive), vivre, irr.; 
(dwell) demeurer. 

living, n., vie, f. 

loins, reins, m. pl. 

long, long; longtemps ; — 
no -er, § 388. 

look (appear), v., avoir 
Pair (220. 3);—at, re- 
garder ;—for, chercher. 

look, n., regard, m. 

lose, perdre; — one’s 
way, s’égarer. 

loss, perte, f. 

love, v.,aimer. [(62.a). 

love, n., amour, m. or f. 





[ petit. 
low, bas; in a— tone, bas, 
luck, bonheur, m., bonne 

fortune, £.; chance, f. 


M. 
magnificent, magnifique. 
make, faire, irr. 
man, homme, m. 
manliness, fermeté, f. 
manner, maniére; (cus- 
toms) meurs, f. pl. ; in 
that —, de la sorte. 

many, beaucoup de, bien 
des (198). 

march, v., marcher. 

march, n., marche, f. 

mark, marquer. 

marriage, hymen, m. 

marry, tr.,(give or unite) 
marier ; (take to one’s 
self) épouser ; intr., se 
marier ; be married, se 
marier. 

Mary, Marie, f. 

mass, masse, f.; amas, m. 

may, peux etc., of pou- 
voir, irr. 

mean (low), bas. 

means, moyen, m.; (pe- 
cuniary ) moyens, m.pl. 

meat, viande, f. 

meddle, se méler. 

meet, rencontrer. 

melt, fondre. 

merchant, marchand, m. 

metal, métal, m. 

Mexico, Mexique, m. 

might, force, f. 

mind, esprit, m. 

minister, ministre, m. 


minute, minute, f. 
miser, avare, m. 
misfortune, malheur, m. 
model, modéle, m. 
moderation, modération,f. 
modest, modeste. 
moment, moment, Mm. 
monarch, monarque, m. 
Monday, lundi, m. 
money, argent, m. 
morning, matin, m. 
mortal, mortel. 
most, la plupart (198, 
299. b). 
mother, mere, f. 
mount, mont, m. 
mountain, montagne, f. 
mouth, bouche, f. 
much, beaucoup de, bien 
du (etc.) ; too —, trop. 
mussulman,musulman,m. 
must (faut etc. of) fal- 
loir, irr. 
N. 
name, nom, m. 
name, v., nommer. 
Napoleon, Napoléon. 
nation, nation, f. 
national, national. 
nature, nature, f. 
near, pres de. 
necessary, nécessatre. 
necessity, nécessité, f. 
neck, cou, m. 
need, n., nécessité, besoin, 
m.; be in — of, avoir 
besoin de. 
need, v., avoir besoin de. 
needle, aiguille, f. 
neglect, négliger. 





VOCABULARY. 


neighbor, voisin, m. 

neither, cf. 390. 

nephew, neveu, m. 

Netherlands, Pays-Bas, 
m. pl. 


never, ne... jamais 
(388). 

new, nouveau (75, 222), 
neuf (69). 

news, nouvelle, f., or -s. 

nice, jolt. 


no longer, ne plus. 
Normandy, Normandie,f. 
nose, nez, m. 

not, cf. ne, index. 
nothing, ne... rien (390). 
nothingness, néant, m, 
notice, apercevoir, irr. 
novel, nouveau (75, 222). 
now, maintenant. 
number, nombre, m. 
numerous, nombreux. 
nun, nonne, f. 


oO. 


obedience, obéissance, f. 

obey, obéir. 

oblige, obliger. 

observe, observer. 

obtain, obtenir, irr. 

o’clock, heure, f. (deux 
heures ‘two o’clock’ 
etc.). 

of, de ; think —, penser a; 
—it(etc.),en(101,244). 

often, souvent. [(211). 

old, vieuwr (75), agé de 

on, sur; live —, vivre de. 

once, une fois; (formerly) 
jadis. 





281 


only, adj., seul, unique. 

only, adv., ne... que 
(888), seulement. 

open, V., owvrir, irr. 

open, adj., ouvert. 

opinion, opinion, f. 

or, ou. 

order, ordre, m. 

ornament, n.,ornement,m, 

ornament, v., orner, dé- 
corer. 

ornamental, d’ornement, 
beau. 

other, autre. 

otherwise, autrement. 

ought (devrais etc.: —, 
of) devoir, irr. 

out of, hors de. 

outlet, embouchure, f. 

over, sur, au-dessus de; 
(passed) passé. 

overcoat, surtout, m. 

overwhelm, accabler, 


combler. 
tt 

page (boy), page, m. 
pain, peine, f. 
painful, douloureux; (toil- 

some) pénible. 
painting, peinture, f. 
palace, palais, m. 
pale, pale ; grow —, palir. 
paper (news-), journal,m. 
pardon, n., pardon, m. 
pardon, v., pardonner. 
parents, parents, m. pl. 
part, part, f., partie, f.; 
for the most —, pour 
la plupart, le plus ordi- 


nairement. 


282 


particle, particule, f. 

pass, passer. 

passage, passage, m. 

path, passage, m. 

patience, patience, f. 

pay, V., payer. 

pay, n., gages, m. pl. 

pear, poire, f. 

pearl, perle, f. 

pen, plume, f. 

pencil, crayon, m. 

penetrate, pénetrer. 

penetrating, pénétrant. 

penknife, cani/, m. 

physician, docteur, m., 
médecin, m. 

people (nation), peuple, 
(folks) gens (62. d); 
(indef.) on; other —, 
autrut (289); rich — 
(gen’ly) les riches. 

perceive, apercevoir, irr., 
(become 
s’apercevoir de. 

perfectly, parfattement. 

peril, péril, m. 

perseverance, persévé- 
rance, f. 

Persian, de Perse, persan. 

person, personne, f. 

Peter, Pierre. 

pick up, ramasser. _ [f. 

picture, tableau, m., copie, 

pink, @illet, m. 

pity: it’s a —, c’est dom- 
mage. 

place, place, f., lieu, m. ; 
take —, se passer. 

plain, adj., plain, simple. 

plain, n., plaine, f. 


cognizant) | 





VOCABULARY. 


plan, plan, m., projet, m. 

plant, plante, f.; plants, 
plantes, végétaux, m. pl. 

play, v., jouer. 

play, n., jeu, m. 

player, joueur, m. 

please, plaire (irr.) a; if 
you —, s’il vous plait. 

pleasure, plaisir, m. 

pocket, poche, f. [ete. 

poem, poeme, m.; -et, po- 

polecat, fouine, f. 

polite, polt. 

Pompey, Pompee. 

poor, pauvre (222). 

position, position, f. 

possess, posséder. 

possession, possession, f. 

post-office, poste, f. 

pound, livre, f. 

poverty, pauvreté, f. 
misére, f. 

power, pouvoir, m. 

powerful, puissant. 

powerfully, fortement. 


praise, louer; n.louange,m. 


precious stones, pierre- 
ries, f. pl. 

prefer, préférer. 

present, adj., présent. 

present, n., présent, m. 

present, v., présenter. 

press (together), com- 
primer. 

pretext, prétexte, m. 

pretty, joli, beau. 

prevent, empécher. 

price, prix, m. 

pride, orguez/, m. 

prize, prix, m. 





probable, probable. 
product, produit, m. 
proffer, offrir, irr. 
profound, profond. 
project, projet, m. 
promise, v., promettre, 
irr. 
promise, n., promesse, f. 
proof, preuve, f. 
proposition, proposition, 
f. 
protect, protéger, pré- 
server. 
provided, pourvu que. 
province, province, f. 
prudence, prudence, f. 
Prussia, Prusse, f. 
public, public (f. 76). 
punish, punir. 
purchase, acheter. 
purpose : on —, a dessein. 
purposely, a dessein. 
purse, bourse, f. 
pursue, poursuivre, irr. 
put, mettre, irr.; — off, 
remettre. 
Pyrenees, Pyrénées, m. 


pl. 

Q. 
queen, reine, f. 
quick, rapide; -ly, -ment. 
quiet, tranquille. 

R. 
rain, pleuvoir, irr. 
rain, n., pluie, f. 
rare, rare. 
rarely, rarement. 
rashness, témeérité, f. 
ray, rayon, m, 
read, lire, irr. 


ready, prét (with a). 

receive, recevoir, irr. 

recommend, recomman- 
der; to be —ed, re- 
commandable. 

red, rouge. 

redouble, redoubler. 

reflection, réflexion, f. 

refuge, refuge, m.; take 
—, se réfugier. 

regard, égard, m. 

rejoice, tr., réjouir ; intr., 
se réjouir. 

relation (affinity), rela- 
tion, f.; (reference) 
rapport, m.; (kindred) 
parent, m. 

relative, parent, m. 

religion, religion, f. 

rely, se fier. 

remain (be left), rester, 
étre de reste. 

remark, remarque, f. 

remedy, reméde, m. 

remember, se rappeler. 

remorse, remords, m. 

render, rendre. 

repeat, répéter. 

repent, se repentir (irr.) 
de. 

reply, répondre. 

reproach, v., reprocher. 

reproach, n., reproche, m. 

republic, république, f. 

reputation, réputation, f. 

request, v., prier, de- 
mander. 

request, n., demande, f. 

require, exiger. 

resemble, ressembler a. 





VOCABULARY. 


respect, v., respecter. 

respect, n., respect, m. 

respond, répondre. 

rest, reposer. 

restrain, retenir, irr. 

retreat, retraite, f. 

return, v., refourner ; be 
—ed, étre de retour; 
— to, rentrer. 

return, n., retour, m. 

revolution, révolution, f. 

reward, récompense, f. 

Rhine, Rhin, m. 

rich, riche. 

ride (on a horse), mon- 
ter. 

ridiculous, ridicule. 

right, n., drovt, m. 

right, adj., juste; (not 
left) drot ; be — (of 
persons), avoir raison ; 
to the —, 
(main, f., ‘hand,’ being 
understood). 

ring, sonner. 

rise, v., (get up) se lever, 
monter. 


a droite 


rise, n., naissance, f. 

road, chemin, m. ; route, f. 

Roman, romain; n., Ro- 
main. 

room, chambre, f. 

rose, rose, f. 

round, adj., rond. 

round, adyv., = around. 

rout, mettre (irr.) en 
déroute. 

ruin, n., ruine, f. 

ruin, v., ruiner, perdre 
(tr.) ; — ed, ruiné 





288 


ruler, gouverneur, m.; 
souverain,m.,—régle, f. 

run, courzr, irr. 

Russia, Russie, f. 

Russian, russe, de Russie ; 
n., Russe. 


Ss. 


sacrifice, sacrifice, m. 

safety, sireté, f. 

salary, salaire, m. 

same, méme. 

sand, sable, m. 

savage, sauvage. 

Saxony, Saze, f. 

say, dire, irr. 

scamp, coquin, m. 

scenery, scénes, f. pl., 
vues, f. pl. 

Scipio, Sctpion. 

school-boy, écolier, m. 

science, science, f. 

Scotch, écossais, d’Ecos- 
se; n., Ecossais. 

scold, blamer. 

sea, mer, f. 

security, garantie, f. 

see, voir, irr.; apercevoir, 
irr.; — again, revoir, 
irr. 

seek, chercher. 

seem, paraitre, irr. 

seize, s'emparer de, 

self, méme (107.3), 

selfish, égoiste. 

sell, vendre. 

send, envoyer, irr. 

sense, sens, m. 

separate, séparer, 


284 


servant-girl, bonne, f., 
domestique, f. 

serve, servir, irr. 

several, plusieurs. 

severe, sévere. 

shed, répandre, verser. 

shoe, soulier, m. [m. 

shoemaker, cordonnier, 

show, montrer. 

shut, fermer. 

sick, malade. 

sight, vue, f. 

silk, soe, f. 

silver, argent, m. 

simple, simple. 

simplicity, s¢mplicite, f. 

since, depyiis. 

sing, chanter. 

single, seul. 

sir, monsieur, m. 

sister, seur, f. 

skilful, Aabile. 

sky, ciel, m. 

sleep, dormir, irr. 

sleepy: be —, avoir 
sommeil, 

slender (thin), mince; 
(graceful) svelte. 

slip, glisser. 

slope, pente, f. 

slow, lent ; be (5 minutes 
etc.) slow, retarder de 
(5 minutes etc.). 

slumber, sommeiller. 

smile, v., sourire, irr. 

smile, n., sourire, m. 

snatch, arracher. 

snow, neige, f. 

snow-slip, éboulement de 
neige. 





VOCABULARY. 


society, société, f. 

soever, qui (quor) que ce 
soit. 287, note. 

softly, doucement. 

soldier, soldat, m. 

some, du etc. (de); (a 
few) quelques; (of it 
etc.) en. 

somebody, quelqu’un. 

something, quelque chose. 

sometimes, quelquefois. 

son, jils, m. 

soon, bientot; as — as, 
aussitot que. 

sore: have (a) —, avoir 
mal a. 

sorrow, chagrin, m. 

sorry, faché (for de). 

soul, ame, f. 

source, source, f. 

southern, méridional. 

Spain, Hspagne, f. 

spare, épargner. 

speak, parler. 

standard, ¢tendard, m. 

star, etoile, f. 

starling, sansonnet, m. 

start, partir, irr. 

state, état, m. 

steal away, s’esquiver. 

steel, acier, m. 

steep, rapide. 

stick out, sortir, irr. 

stone, pierre, f. 

stop, s’arréter. 

store-keeper, marchand, 
m. 

stream, fleuve, m. 

street, rue, f. 

study, n., étude, 





study, v., étudier. 

stuff, etoffe, f. 

style, style,m.; manieére, f, 

subject, sujet, m.; on the 
—, la dessus. 

submit, intr., se soumettre, 
irr. 

succeed, réussir, parvenir, 
irr. 

success, succés, m. 

suffer, souffrir, irr. 

sufficient, suffisant; be 
—, suffire, irr. 

sugar, sucre, m. 

sultana, sultane, f. 

summer, été, m. 

summit, sommet, m. 

sun, sole], m. 

suppose, supposer. 

sure, sir. [ ment. 

surely, stirement, certaine- 

surmise, soupgonner. 

surprised, surpris. 

surprising, surprenant. 

surrender, abandonner. 

surround, environner. 

suspect, soupconner ; 
douter. 

sustain, soutenir. 

Swede, Suedois. 

Sweden, Suéde, f. 

sweet, doux. 

swim, nager. 

Switzerland, Suisse, f. 


se 


T. 
table, table, f. 
tailor, tailleur, m. 
take, prendre, irr. 
—— place, se passer. 


take from (away), dter. 

tall, grand, haut. 

tea, thé, m. 

teach, enseigner, appren- 
dre, irr. 

teacher, maitre, m. 

tear, n., /arme, f. 

tear, v., (away) arra- 
cher; (asunder) deé- 
chirer. 

tell, dire, irr. 

temper, trempe, f. 

tent, tente, f. 

terrify, effrayer. 

territory, ferritoire, m. 

than, que, de (225). 

thank, remercier. 

theft,vo/,m. then, alors. 

thick, épais. 

thief, voleur, m. 

thimble, dé, m. 

thin, mince. 

thing, chose, f. 

think, penser ; (believe) 
croire, irr. 

thinker, penseur, m. 

third, troisiéme (trois) ; 
one (a, the) —/e tiers. 

thirst, soz/; -ty (204.A.1). 

thought, pensee, f. 

through, par. 

throw, précipiter. 

thus, ainsi. 

till, jusqu’a (ce que). 

time, temps, m.; (of the 
clock) heure, f.; (suc- 
cessive) fois, f. 

tire, fatiguer. 

tired, fatigue. [gant. 

tiresome, ennuyeux; fati- 





VOCABULARY. 


to, a ,en, dans; with inf., 
a, de, pour. 

together, ensemble ; 
with, avec. 

to-day, aujourd’hut. 

to-morrow, demain. 

tomb, tombeau, m. 

to-night, ce soir. 

tooth-ache, mal aux dents. 

torment, n., tourment, m. 

torment, v., tourmenter. 

torrent, torrent, m. 

towards, vers, envers. 

town, ville, f. 

tranquility, tranquillité, 
f. 

transfer, déférer. 

travel, voyager. 

traverse, courir. 

treason, trahison, f. 

treasure, trésor, m, 

treat, traiter. 

tree, arbre, m. 

tribunal, tribunal, m. 

trifle, rien, m. 

triumph, n., triomphe, m. 

triumph, v., triompher. 

troop, troupe, f. 

trouble, troubler. 

Troy, Troie. 

true, vrai; -ly, vraiment. 

trunk, tronc, m. 

trust, se fier a. 

truth, vérite, f. 

truthful, vrai, sincére. 

truthfulness, véracité, f.; 
vérité, f. 

try, essayer, chercher. 

Turk, Turc. 

Turkish, turc. 





285 


U. 


umbrella, parapluie, m. 

uncertain, incertain. 

uncle, oncle, m. 

undersigned, soussigné. 

understand, comprendre, 
irr. 

undertake, entreprendre, 
irr. 

unformed, naissant. 

unfortunate, infortune, 
malheureux. 

united, uni. 

until, jusqw’a@ ce que. 

uproar, rumeur, f. 

urge, presser. 

use, usage, m. 

useful, utile. 

usefulness, wtilite, f. 

useless, inutile. 

usual: as —, de coutume. 

utter, articuler. 


Vv. 
vain: in —, en vain. 
valor, vazllance, f. 
value, valeur, f. 
vanity, vanité, f. 
venture, risquer. 
verse, vers, m. 
very, ady., ¢rés; adj., 
méme. 
vice, vice, m. 
victory, victoire, f. 
vigor, vigueur, f. 
village, village, m. 
violin, violon, f. 
virtuous, vertueux. 
visit, v., aller (or venir) 
voir, rendre visite. 


286 


visit, n., visite, f. 
voice, voiz, f. 
void, vide. 
volume, volume, m. 


w. 


wait, attendre. 

wall, mur, m. 

want, désirer. 

war, guerre, f. 

warlike, belliqueur. 

warm, chaud ; be (feel) 
—, avoir chaud. 

warn, avertir. 

watch, v., veiller (sur). 

watch (timekeeper), 
montre, f. 

water, n., eau, f. 

water, v., abreuver. 

way, chemin, m. etc.; this 
—, par ici; in this —, 
de cette maniére; lose 
one’s —, s’égarer. 

weak, faible. 

weariness, fatigue, f.; 
ennui, m. 

weary, fatiguer ; refl. s’en- 
nuir (19. 2). 

weasel, belette, f. 

weather, temps,m. What 
kind of —? Quel 
temps ? 

week, semaine, f. 

weep, pleurer. 

weight, poids, m. , 


ADDITI 





ambassador, ambassa- 
deur. 

hesides, cf. 395. 

depart, partir, irr 

earn, gagner, 





VOCABULARY. 


welcome, adj., bienvenu; 
n., bienvenue, f. 

well, adv., bien. 

well, n., putts, m. 

what, ce qui (or que). 

whatever: 212. a, 283, 
285, 287, 330. 

when, guand, lorsque. 

where, oi. 

whether, si; —... or, 
soit... soit, soit que 
(subj.) .. 

while, pendant que, tandis 
que (whilst, 406), tout 
en. 

white, blanc. [287, 3380. 

whoever: 212. b, 286, 

why, pourquot. 

widow, veuve, f. 

wife, femme, f. 

will, volonté, f.: Cast) 
testament, ™. 

win, gagner. 

window, fenétre, f. 

wine, vin, m. 

wisdom, sagesse, f. 

wise, sage. 

wish, souhaiter, désirer. 

with, avec, de, par, a. 

wither, tr., flétrir ; intr., 
se flétrir. 

without, prep., 
conj., sans que, a moins 
que; adv., dehors 

wolf, Joup, m. 


. soit que. 


sans ; 





woman, femme, f. 

word (written or utter- 
ed), mot, m.; (uttered, 
and us’ly significant) 
parole, f. 

work, v., travailler, 

work, n., (labor) travail, 
m.; (performance) 
ouvrage,m.; (literary) 
cuvre, f. 

work-box, corbeiille (f.) a 
ouvrage ; boite, f. 

world, monde, m. 

worse, adj., pire; adv., 
pis. ; 

worthy, digne. 

wound, blesser. 

write, écrire, irr. 

writing, écriture,f. [tort. 

wrong, tort; be —, avoir 


x. 
Xerxes, Xervés. 
Y. 


yard (measure), métre, 
m. 

year, année, f.; an, m. 

yes, oui, st. 

yesterday, hier. 

yet, encore. 

young, jeune ; — fellow. 
jeune homme. 


Z. 


zeal, zéle, m. 


ONS TO THE VOCABULARY. 


imperceptible, impercep- | orange, orange, f. 


tible. 
instead, au lieu. 
laborer, travailleur, m. 
oblivion, oubli, m. 
? 


physician, médecin, m. 
pleased, content. 
walk, marcher. 


References are to paragraphs (when not exceptionally marked p. = page). 


INDEX. 


All the 


irregular verbs are here repeated. The alphabetical reference lists 324-330, 344, 347, 351, 


353, are omitted. 


a (a, a): hist., 1; pron’n, 
14; —a elided, 27 
a: with nouns, 212-13 (spe- 
cial uses, 213) ;— repeated, 
217; — with infinit., 350-3 ; 
Sade travers, 216, e. 
absoudre: see résoudre, 161. 
abstenir : cf. tenir, 161. 
-abstraire; cf. traire, 161. 
abuser : with de, 211. d. 
accent ; stress, 10; —acc.- 
marks, 5 
accourir: cf. cowrir, 161. 
accroire: see croire, 161. 
accroitre: cf. crottre, 161. 
accueillir ; see cueillir, 161. 
acheter ; with d, 213. d. 
acquérir : 161. 
accute accent: 5. a; — 
changed to grave, 35, 126, 
uateciives: history (pron’n, 
64; synt., 218); — plural, 
66; —fem., 67-8 (one gen- 
der, 79) 5 3; — comparison, 
; 224-230; — as nouns, 
200, "931 >; — as adverbs, 
166; —agreem’t, 219-20; 
—place, 221-3; — with de 
or a, 361; —'from pres. 


apples 366. 

joindre; cf. peindre, 161. 
mettre: cf. mettre, 161. 

adverbs: history, 162, 372; 
—single, 164-5 (in -ment, 
165); — phrases, 167 ; 
comparison, 168; — of 
quantity requiring de, 44, 
198, 198. 1; — position, 
392, 411; — requiring in- 
version, 416. b; — prono- 
minal (use of), 101, 244, 
244. c, 259. 

ai (at): hist.,1; pron’n, 15; 
for 0%, 17 (04, 2). 


aieul » pl., 50.4 

-ail ; in Pl. Tit " 50.9. 

ail; pl., 

-ai ; in are “50; 50.2; 66.2. 





Se ERE 


aller: irr., 161 (s’en aller, 
161) ; — with étre, 142; — 
as auxil., 318. 

almanach: 7g. silent, 23 (ch). 

alphabet: 

amour : as or £:,°62.:2 

ap sige words: 430- 

-ant ; in pl. -ans, 66.3. 

ao: pron’n, 17. 

aoriste ; a silent, 17 (ao). 

aott ; pron’n, 17 (aow). 

apercevoir; cf. recevoir, 
161. 

are : ef. paraitre, 

beeerale: 161. 

appartenir : cf. tenir, 161, 

appositional noun; no article, 
204. B. 1. 

pepeontern : ef, prendre, 

Bossi ap constr., 211. g. 

apres: with nouns, 216. a; 
— with infinit., 357. 

archange: ch= ‘k, 23 (ch). 

arracher ; with a, 213. d. 

arrangement of ‘sentence: 
history, 407; — direct, 409- 
12; — inverted, 413-18. 

arriver : w, étre, 142. 

articles: history, 38, 179; 
definite, se le; —in- 
definite,seun; —par- 
titive, se partitive sign; 
— generic, se gen. art. ; 
— omission, 203-4. 

as: 8 heard, 23 (s). 

‘as .. as’: 84. 

assaillir > 161. 

assentir : cf. sentir, 161. 

asseoir : 161 

astreindre: cf. peindre, 
161, 

atteindre: cf. peindre, 161. 

attendu ; infl. or not, 219.4. 

attraire; cf. traire, 161. 

au. pron’n, 15; —for a le, 





41; —au moins, 394; 
au reste, 395. 

aucun ; use, 112.4, 290; 
with ne, 388, alone, 388.1. 

aucunement ; with ne, 388; 

- alone, 388.1. 

aussi, si: 393. 

automne: m silent: 19.2. 

autre : with ne, 386.1; — for 
autrui, 289. 

autrement : with ne, 386.1. 

autrut : use, 289 

aval; pl., 50.2. 

avant ; use, 216. a; — avant 
que with ne, 383.1. 

avec ; use, 216. b. 

avoir: conj., 137; hist., 138; 
— faim ete. (without ar- 
ticle), 204. A. 1; — avoir 
Pair, 220.3. 

avril; pron’n, 23 (il). 

ay: pron’n, 15, 


bd: not een 33. 
bapt- = bat-, 23 (p). 
baril : i silent, oS (il). 
battre : irr., 134.3. 
beau : forms, 755 
par. 81. 
beaucoup : with de, 44; 


— com- 


bétail : pl., 50.s. 

bien: with du, 198; 
ar., 1 oo 

bijou : pl., 

bis: s hfe ie (b). 

blane ; f., 76. x5 

bleu: pl., "66.1. 

boeuf: fin, 2 (f)- 

boire : 

bon: son n, 82, 

bouger: with ne alone, 376 

bowillir : 161. 

braire;: 161. 

brave; posit’n, 222. 


— com. 


288 


brin = pas ; 389. 


bruire : 161. 


c.: pron’n, 23; — linking, 
30; — change to qu or ¢, 
37, 76, 129 

ca: use, 268. 

ceesura: 422, 

cailion: pl., 50.1. 

cap: p heard, 23 (p). 

capitals: 

cardinals: 138; — for ord’ls, 

carnaval; pl., 50.2. 

ce; 107; pronoun, 107.2; — 


use, 265; —ce or il, 252; 
_ explet. +, 266; — with 
sembler, 267; — ce sont 


(edc.) 300; — ce que (que), 
273.2; 280. 

ceci ; use, 268. 

cedilla: 7. 

ceindre: cf. peindre, 161. 

cela: use, 268. 

celui: use, 269 (omitted, 
269.3). 

celui-ct ; 269.1; 270. 

celui-la : 269.1; 270. 

cens : s heard, 23 (Ss). 

cer: verbs in, 129. 

certain ; posit’n, 222. 

cesser : with née, 376. 

cet for ce: 107. ae 

ch; pronune’n, 23, 24. A. 

chacal : pl., 50.2, 

chacun: with son or leur, 
260. 

changer : de, 211. & 

chaque: 112. 

chénil : 1 silent, 23 (i). 

chef-deuvre ; f sil’t, 23 (f). 

cher : posit’n, 222. 

chez: use, 216. c. 

choir: 161. 

chose; m. or f., 62. b. 

chou ; pl., 50.1. 

Christ ; st in, 28 (¢). 

chut ; ¢ heard, 23 (t). 

ciel: pl., 50.4. 

ci-inclus ; 220.2. 

cijoint : 220. 2. 

cing: pron’n, 88. 

circoncire : 161.1. 

circonscrire: cf. écrire, 

circonvenir: cf. venir, 161. 

circumflex: use, 5. b; in 
verbs, 124. 

clef: f silent, 23 (/). 

clerc ;: c silent, 23 (c). 

clore: 161. 

comme or que, 400. 

commettre ; cf. mettre, 161. 

comparattre: cf. parattre, 





INDEX. 


comparative: cf. compari- 
son; — with que or de, 
225; — with ne, 386. 

comparison: of adj., 81-5; 
224-30; — of adv. 168. 

complaire: ef. plaire, 161. 

comment subj. or obj., 
0 


compounds: nouns (pl.), 53- 
4; —adj., 80; — tenses, 
139; — compounds spelled, 
9.2 


comprendre : ef. prendre, 
161 


compromettre : cf. mettre, 

concevoir; 161. 

conclure : 161. 

concourir : cf. courir, 161. 

conditional: use, 314-16 (of 
devoir, pouvoir, savoir, 
317. b). 

conduire ; 161. 

conjire: cf. suffire, 161. 

conjoindre : cf. peindre, 161. 

conjunctions: 173-4; — re- 
quiring subjunct., 326, 327, 
330. 


connattre : 16. 

conquérir;: cf. acquérir, 
161. 

conseiller ; with a, 218. d. 

consentir ; cf. sentir, 161. 


consonants: pron’n, 20-3 
(see each, in alphab’l 
order). 

conduire, 


construire: cf. 
161 : 


contenir : cf. tenir, 161. 
contraction: 41. 
contraindre : 


ef. dire, 161. 
contrefaire: cf. faire, 161, 
contrevenir ; cf. venir, 161. 
convenir : cf. venir, 161. 
coudre; 161. 
courir ; 161. 
coutchouc : c silent, 
couvrir : 161 
craindre ; cf. peindre, 161; 
— with subj. 325; and ne, 
883 


cf. peindre, 


contredire + 


23 (c). 


croc; c silent, 28 (c). 
croire; 161. 

crottre; 161. 

cueillir + 161. 

cuiller: r heard, 23 (1). 
cuire:;: cf. condwire, 161, 
cul= cu; 23 (p. 21). 


d; linking, 30, 33. 
damner ; m silent, 19.2. 
dans ; use, 214. 

date; 90, 237. 





dative of pers’l pron.: 248. 
davantage « use, 228, 396. 
de: as part. sign, cf. parti- 
tive sign ; — with nouns, 
210-11; — with infinit., 
346-9, 353; — repeated, 
217; — with geogr’| names, 
192. b; — to denote char- 
acter, 199. 3;—de, ‘in,’ 211. 
d; ‘as,? 211. f; —in com- 
a 211. d, e (for gue, 
225); — explet. 198. 2. 3, 
atchier with étre, 142, 
décevoir : cf. recevoir, 161. 
déchoir : 161. 
décider : with de, 211. g. 
déclore: cf. clore, 161. 
déconjire: cf. sufire, 161. 
découdre ; cf. coudre, 161. 
découvrir cf. couvrir, 161. 
décrire; cf. écrire, 161. 
décrottre : cf. crottre, 161. 
dédire; cf. dire, 161 
déduire : ef. phi 161. 
défaillir : cf. faillir, 161. 
défaire ; cf. faire, 161. 
defective verbs: cf. 161 (all 
marked with an asterisk). 
definite article: cf. le (this 
index). 
agjoindre ef. aes 161. 
délice : m. or f., 62, a. 
demander : a, a. d. 
démentir : ef. sentir, 161. 
démettre ; cf. mettre, 161. 
demi : infl. or not, 220.4. 
demonstratives: 107, 264-70. 
démouvoir: ae mouvoir, 161. 
partir : artir, 161. 
Neandiee © peindre, 161. 
déplaire : cf. plaire, 161. 
dépourvoir ; cf. voir, 161. 
déprendre ; cf. prendre, 161. 
depuis que ; with ne, 385, 
dernier posit’n, 222. 
des, dés ; distine’n, 5. a. 1. 
desapprendre Sots & prendre, 
161. 


Bae 





déteindre: cf. peindre, 161. 

détenir : cf. tenir, 161. 

détruire: cf. conduire, 161. 

devant : avant, 216. a. 

devenir : cf. venir, 161. 

dévetir ; cf. vétir, 161. 

devoir : conj., 161; — use, 
317. a. b. c. 

diwresis: 6, 77. 

différent : place, 222. 

difficile ; de or a, 361. 

diphthongs: 16. 

dire; 161. 

disconvenir : cf. venir, 161. 

disjoindre : cf. joindre, 161. 

disparattre: cf. paraitre, 
161. 


dissoudre : cf. résoudre,161. 

dissons ; f., 71. 

distraire: cf. traire, 161. 

dissyllabics: 16. 

divers : place, 222. 

diz : pronune’n, 88, 

doigt : gt silent, 23 (t). 

done ; c heard or not, 23 ae eds 

dont - use, 111; 276 

dormir : 161. 

dot: t heard, 23 (¢). 

Vows 111.2. 

doux ; f., 76.2. 

drachme: ch= g, 23 ie 

du, di: distine’n, 5. b. 
—du of de, 6, 41; <a 
part., see part. sign; 
= moins, 394; — reste, 


Pinal : for dont, 111.1. 


: hist., 1; pron te e — 
* ‘change to é, 35, 74, 126; — 
lost in fut. cond., mee i 
—elided, 27; — nouns in, 
57. b, 59, 60, 63. b, 67, 
78.2; — fr. Lat. a, 64; — 
e ‘mute’ in verse, 423. 
é; hist. 1; —pron’n, 4. a, 
14; — change to é, 35; — 
: oF é before -ge, ~je, 35.1, 


é; hist., 1; — pron’n, 4. a, 
14; —fore (é), 35, 74, 126; 

or 2 before’ -ge, je, 
35.1, 151. 

é: hist., 1, 4.a; pron’n, 14, 

eau: hist. aks — pron’ n, 15. 

ébouillir ; cf. bouillir, 161. 


échapper : a, 213. d. 

échoir : 161. 

éclore: cf. clore, 161; — 
with étre, 142. 

écrire : 161. 

et (e?); pron’n, 15. 

élire: cf. lire, 161. 


elision: 26. a, 27. 

em; pronune’n, 19, 19.2. 

embassadeur : f., 78.1. 

émettre ; cf. mettre, 161. 

emm-; pronunce’n, 19.2. 

-emment ; pronune’n, p. 12, 
note 4, 

émoudre: cf. moudre, 161. 


émouvoir : cf. mouvoir, 161. 

empécher: subj., 325; and 
ne, 382 

empereur: f., 78.1. 

— ef. peindre, 


emprunter a, 2138, d. 

en: prepos’n; with 
nouns, 214, 192.a; — with 
pres. partic., 101, 359, 367; 
— repeated, 217; — pro- 





INDEX. 


nom’! particle, 101, 

102, 244, 250. c, 259. 
enceindre : cf. peindre, 161. 
enchanteur - f. a hy 
enclore: cf. clore, 161. 
encourir ; cf. courir, 161. 
endormir : cf. dormir, 161. 
enduire; cf. conduire, 161. 
enfant : m. or f., 60. 
ee cf. peindre, 


enfuir > cf. fuir, 161 

enjambement : 427. 

enjoindre ; cf. Dg gat 161. 

enlever ; a, 213. d. 

enn-; pron’n, 19. 2. 

enquérir : ef. acquérir, 161. 

ensutvre ; cf. suivre, 161. 

-ent : in pl., -ens, 66.3. 

entre: use, 216. d, 358. 

entremettre: cf. mettre, 
161. 

ae abdaanenis cf. prendre, 

eter. with @tre, 142. 

entresecourir : ct. courir, 

entresuivre : ef. swivre, 
16 

entretenir ; cf. tenir, 161. 

entrevoir : cf. voir, 161. 

entrouvrir: cf. couvrir, 
161. 

envoyer :; 161. 

éprendre : - peindre, 161. 

den, hii f. prendre, 161. 

quivaloir ; cf. valoir, 161. 

és : use, 41.1 

estomac ; ¢ aaa 23 (c). 

et : pr. é, 14. e. 2 (end p. 11); 
— not linked, 33; — et ne, 
‘nor,’ 390.1; a et, 
401. 

éteindre ; cf. peindre, 161. 

étre s conj., 137; — history, 
38; —for avoir, 142-3; 
— after ce, 300; — étre a, 
213. ¢. 

étreindre: cf. peindre, 161. 

sr Dye hist., 1; — pron’n, 


cae: f., 57. b, 78. 

éviter > with subjunct., 
and ne, 382. 

excepté : infil. or not, 220.4. 

eclure;: cf. clure, 161. 

extraire: cf. traire, 161. 

ey: pron’n, 15. 


J: pron’n, 23; — change to 
v, 30, 69. 

Facile = de or a, 361. 

Jaillir : 161, 353. 

jaire: irr., 161; 
infinit., 208.1. 


825 


— with 





289 


Jaisait etc.: fai-= fe-, 15 
ai). 

Jalloir : 161. 

faon = fan : 17 (ao). 

Jat; t heard, 23 (#). 

Jaut ; see under 2. 

Saux ; f., 76.1. 

Javori; f., 78.2. 

Jeindre ; cf. peindre, 161. 

Seminine : see gender, 63. 

Semme = fim: 19.2. 

Ferir ; 161. 

‘fils = fiss : p, 21. 

jleurir ; irr., 133. 

Jorceps ; s heard, 28 (s). 

Jorclore: cf. clore, 161. 

Sorfaire: cf. faire, 161. 

foreign words: pronunc., 
24; pi., 50.5. 

fortnight : 235. 

fou : forms; 75. 

Jfoudre; m. or f., 62. ¢. 

fractionals: 94, 


Jrais; f., 72. 

Jranc: f., 76.1; place, 222. 

Jrire; 161. 

Suir: 161. 

Jusil: lsilent, 23 (7). 

future: formation, 113. A; 
— use, 310; — of proba- 
bility, 313. 

g: pron’n, 23; — linking, 


30; — change to gu, 37, 
76; to ge, 37, 129; 
Engl. w, 487. 
galant : place, 222. 
geindre: cf. peindre, 161. 
gender: history, 55; — masc. 
(nouns), 56, 58-63; rhyme, 
425; — fem. (nouns), 57- 
63; — rhyme, 425; 
masc. or fem., 60-62. 
gencric article: use, 40, 40.1; 


> 

gésir: ‘i61. 

gn: pron’n, 23, 

goutte = pas : 389, 

grand ; in grand’mére etc., 
64. B.; — place, 222. 

grave accent : 5. a. 

grec: f, 76.1. 

gros: £., 75; — place, 222. 

gu: retained +-a, 0, 129. b; 
= Engl. w, 487. 

hk: pron’n, 23; —#in spell- 
ing, 9.1. 

hatr ; irr., 133. 

hélas : 8 heard, p 

héro ete.: hin, 33 ii. 


290 


hibou ; pl. 50.1. 

honnéte: place, 222. 

hiatus: 424, 

historical infinitive: 349. 

huit : pronunc’n, 88. 

hyphen: nouns, 53; numer- 
als, cf. 88; pron’s and 
verbs, 102, 151. 


i (t): pron’n, 14; — elided, 
27.5. a; —for y, 36, 181. 

-ien : pron’n, 19,1. 

ail; pronoun, 100; as impers. 

" sub., 251-2; — il or ce with 

_ etre, 252; —il y a, 136; 
— il est, 252 (for il y a), 
424.2; — il faut (constr. 
with), 331; — i s’en faut 
with ne, 384. 

-i1: pronune’n, p. 20. 

-ill- : pronunce’n, p. 20. 

imperative: form’n, 185; — 
with pers. pron., 102. b; 
—cepr. by subjunct. 308, 
308.1. 

imperfect: form’n, 1385; — 
use, 306; (in subj.) 336-7; 
for condit’l after si, 308; 
indep’ly, 308.1. 

impersonal verbs: 136, 

indeclinables: history, 162, 
372; form, 163-75; synt., 
373-406. 

indef, article: cf. wn. 

indefinites (pr. and adj.): 
form, 112; synt., 282-94. 

indicative: cf. the different 
tenses. 

induire: cf. condutre, 161. 

infinitive: history, 113. B, 
3840; — sign of, 117; — 
correspond’g to Engl. inf. 
and ger., 341; — without 
prepos’n, 343-4, 353; with 
de, 346-9, 358, 361; with a, 
350-3, 361; — historical in- 
finit., 849; — after nouns 
and adj., 361; — for sub- 
junct., 331; — frequent 
use of, 362. 

inscrire: cf. écrire, 161. 

instruire » cf. condutre, 161. 

interjections: 175, 

interrogative verbs: 151-2. 

interrogatives (pr. and adj.): 
108; synt., 271. 

intervenir ; cf. venir, 161. 

introduire: cf. conduire, 


161, 
inversion: 413; in questions, 
414; in opt. or cond. 


phrases, 415; in clauses 
not headed by the sub- 
ject, 416; in interjected 
phrases, 417, 





INDEX. 


irregular verbs: 155-61 (list, 
161; all repeated in in- 
dex). : 
issir : 161. 


jadis ; s heard, 23 (s). 

jamais ; with ne, 388; alone, 
388.1. 

je: for moi, 245. 

joindre: cf. peindre, 161. 

joug: g heard, 23 (g). 

jouer: de or a, 211. ¢, 212. a. 

jouir : de, 211. g. 

joujou : pl., 50.1. 

juger: de, 211. g. 

jusque. elis’n, 27.4. 


k: 3.2, 20. 


Z: doubled, 35, 73-5, 126; 
— change to w, 1, 47. b, 
49; saved in Engl., lost in 
Fr., 4386. 

la, la: dist’n, 5.a.1; — -la, 
107 


laisser ; with inf., 208.1. 

la plupart: cf. plupart. 

laps: s heard, 238 (s). 

le (la, les): history, 38, 179; 
— form, 40; — not elided, 
27.1; def. or gener. article, 
40, 40. note; — contr’n, 
41; — gen’l use, 180-196; 
for poss. adj., 182-4; with 
nouns of weight, etc., 185; 
with fractional names, 186; 
with titles, 18%; in idioms, 
188; with proper nouns, 
189-90; with geogr. nouns, 
191-4; as gener. art., 195; 
with names of lang., 196; 
— with the part. de, 43, 
45, 199, 200; —Jle as de- 
terminat., 107.4; — le ex- 
pletive, 250.a.1; — le‘ so’, 
250. b; —le moins, le plus, 
as ady., 230; as noun, 
231.1. 

lequel : inter., 108, 110, 271; 
relat., 110, 276; as adj., 278. 

leur: pers. or poss., 100, 
106; use, 244, 

linking: 26. b, 28-33. 

lire: 161. 

lis : s in, 23 (8). 

Von for on: 112.s. 

lorsque ; elis’n, 27.4; — use, 
404 


lui; pers. pr., 100; use, 

242.1; 244; for son, 258. 
luire: cf. conduire, 161. 
Vun Vautre ; 294. 





m: pron’n, 28, 19; in for- 
eign names, 24. A, 25; — 
linking, 338. 

mais ; $ heard, 23 (s). 

maintenir : cf. tenir, 161. 

mal: comp., 168. 

malfaire : cf. faire, 161. 

malhonnéte : place, 161. 

malin + f., 70. 

‘many’: rendered, 85; 
‘many a,’ 293. 

marc: c silent, 23 (c). 

mars ; s heard, 23 (s). 

maudire : cf. dire, 161. 

masculine: see gender. 

mauvais > compar’n, 82; 
place, 221. 

parrot: : how expressed, 


sagt = Veg tid : ef. connaitre, 

61. 

méchant ; place, 222. 

médire: cf. dire, 161. 

méfaire: ef. faire, 161. 

méme + 100.4; 104-5; 107. 

mentir ; cf. sentir, 161. 

méprendre ; cf.prendre, 161. 

mettre; 161. 

mie = pas ; 389; in ma mie 
106.1 y eogshe 

mien : for le mien, 263.2. 

mil + for mille, 89.1. 

mille etc.: pron., 23 (él). 

‘mine’ etc. : expressed, 263. 

meurs; s heard, 23 (8). 

mol; forms, 73. 

mon: for ma, 106.1 (hist., 
note 1, parenth.); — in 
address, 262. 

monsieur : pron’n, 19.2; — 
orig., 262 

‘more, most’: rendered, 85. 

mot = pas ; 389. 

mou : forms, 73. 

moudre ; 161. 

mourir ; irr., 161; with étre, 
142. 

mouvoir ; 161. 

-mpt-= mt; 23 (p). 

multiplicatives: 95. 


nm: pron’n, 23, 19; in for- 
eign names, 24. A, 25; — 


linking, 31; — doubled, 
35, 73-5, 126. 

nattre: conj., 161; — w. 
étre, 142. 


nasal vowels: 19; linking, 
31 


n’avoir garde ; 376. 

née:— (a) with pas (point 
etc.): history, 372; use, 
158, 169, 374, 388-9; with 
aucun, personne, nul, 
112,4; 291, 388; — (b) ne 


“nid 
_s 


alone, 375-80 (with pou- 

voir etc., 376; after que, 

qui, 377; with plaise, 376, 

376.1; after negat. verbs, 

378; after expressions of 

effort, 379; after si, 380); 

(c) ne expletive, 
381-7 (after empécher 
etc., 382; after words of 
fear etc., 383; after avant 
que, 383.1; after i s’en 
faut, 384; after depuis que 
or que, 385; after com- 
parat., 386; after autre 
etc., 386.1; after &@ moins 
que, 387). 

negation: cf. ne. 

nerf: f in, 23 (f). 

net « ¢ heard, 23 (¢). 

neuf; pron’n, 88. 

ni: use, 390, 390.2, 297. 


wimporte ; 376, 376.1. 


non (pas) : 373. 

nouns: history, 47, 205; for 
numb., gend., etc., cf. 
these topics; — with 
prepos., 209-17. 

nous ; for je, 246. 

nouveau: forms, 
place, 222, 

nu > infl. or not, 219.4. 

nuire s cf. conduire, 161. 

nul; f., 74; with ne, 291; — 
alone, 388.1. 

nullement : with ne, 388; 
alone, 388.1. 

numerals: 86-95 (cf. cardi- 
nals, ordinals, etc.); — 
synt., 232 etc. 


75; 


o (6): pron’n, 14. 

obéir : a, 213. d. 

object: place, 410. 

obtenir ; cf. tenir, 161. 

@. pron’n, 1d, 

@il; pl., 50.4, 

@u : pron’n, 15, 

euf: fin, 23(f). 

ofrir ;: cf. couvrir, 161, 

ot (o¢): hist., 1; — pron’n, 
17, 23 (under gn); — for 
ai, 17 (ot, note 2). 

oignon; 7 sil’t, 23 (gn). 

oindre: cf. peindre, 161. 

-oir + verbs in, 113. G, 116.1, 
121.2. 

omettre : cf. mettre, 161. 

on: 112 (Von, 112.3), 288, 


fone’: not transl., 237.1. 
‘only’: 388.3. 

ordinals: 91. 

orgue: m. or f., 62. a. 
oser : ne, 376. 

éter : a, 213. d. 





INDEX. 


ou (ot, of): hist., 1; — 
pron’n, 1d. 

ow, ou; distine’n, 5.a.1; — 
ou, verbs after, 297.a; — 

pron. particle, 111, 


owir: 161. 

ours; § in, 23 (8). 

outil : 7 silent, 23 (al). 
ouvrir: cf. couvrir, 161. 


p.: not linked, 33. 

paitre: 161. 

paon: o silent, 17 (ao). 

par; use, 215, 354. 

parce que: elided, 27; use, 
401.1. 

paraitre : cf. connaitre, 161. 

parcourir ; cf. courir, 161. 

parfaire ; oP ieehes 161. 

parmi; 216. d. 

participles: history, 363 
(141); — present, 365- 
7; —past, 141, 368-71. 

partir ; conj. of sentir; w. 
étre, 142. 

partitive sign: (a) depend- 
ent, 43-4, 198; — (b) in- 
dependent, 43, 45, 199- 
200; omitted, 46, 201-4. 

parvenir: ef. venir, 161. 

pas; cf.. ne; — without 
verb, 373. 

passé : infl. 220.4. 

passive voice; history,113.a; 
conj’n, 140. 

past part’ple: cf. partici- 
ples 


pauvre; place, 222. 

pays ete.: pron’n, 15 (ay, 
note). 

pendant que: 406. 

peindre, 161. 

penser: a, 213. d. 

percevoir : cf. recevoir, 161. 

péril s pron’n, 23 (il). 

permetire ; cf. mettre, 161. 

personal pronouns: elision 
27.2;— forms, 100; — posi- 
tion, 102, 254-6; — dative 
relat’n, 243; — replaced by 
en, y, 101, 244 (by adv., 
244, c); — with two verbs, 
256; — for possess’s, 258. 

personne: m. or f., 62. b; 
use, 112.4, 290, 388. 

peu ; compar’n, 168; — with 
de, 44, 198. 

petit : compar’n, 82; place, 


plaindre : ef. peindre, 161. 
rene : conj., 161; — with a, 
piaisant : place, 222, 
pleuvoir ; 161. 





291 
plupart: with du (de, la, 
des), 198 


plural: history, 47. B; — 
of nouns, 49-54 (comm, 
nouns, 49-50; prop, nouns, 
61; comp. nouns, 53-4); 
— of adject’s, 66, 

plus; or davantage, 396; 
— with ne, 888 (alone, 
388.1). 

plutot > with ne, 386.1. 

proéle: pron’n, 17 (0é), 

poign-: tin, 23 (gn). 

poindre ; 161, 

point: cf, ne, 

pore: c silent, 23 (c). 

possessives; 106, 257-63 (per- 
son’ls for, 258; en for, 259; 
repeated, 261). 

pou: pl., 50.1. 

pour; w. infinit., 355. 

poursuivre.; cf. suivre, 161 

pourvoir : cf. voir, 161. ~ 

pouvoir; conj., 161; use, 
317. a, b; with ne alone, 


376. 
prédire: cf. dire, 161, 
préfix: f., 76.1. 
prélire: ct. lire, 161. 
prendre: 161. 
prepositions : 171-2; — with 
nouns, 209 (cf. each 
prep’n) ; — repeated, 217, 
prescrire: ef, écrire, 161. 
present: simple, 304; com- 
pound, 305. : 
presque. elis’n, 27. 
pressentir ; cf, sentir, 161, 
prévenir ; cf. venir, 161, 
preterit: 306. 
prevaloir ; cf. valoir, 161. 
prévoir : ef. voir, 161. 
principal parts: of verbs. 
135. 


produire ; ef. conduire, 161. 

prometire ; cf. mettre, 161, 

promouvoir: cf. mouvoir, 
161. 


pronouns: cf, each class; — 
history, 96. 

proper nouns: pronune’n, 24; 
— plur. of, 51; — with ar- 
ticle, 189-94, 

propre: place, 222, 

proscrire;: cf. écrire, 161. 

provenir ; cf. venir, 161. 

puisque » elis’n, 27. 

punctuation; 419. 

pupille : ili in, 23 (ill). 

pur ; place, 222. 


qd: pron’n, 28, 17 (u+ vowel). 
qu: retained before a, 0, 
* 1993: Bs 

quand; or quant, 398; — 


292 


or lorsque, 404;—condit’l, 
4 


el, 

quantity: 11-12, 14. 

quart ; 92.2, 

que: — pronoun: interr., 
108, 273; relat., 109, 276, 
280-1; ‘what,’ 273; in in: 
def., 283, 287; — parti- 
cle: in comparison, 84, 
224-5; explet., 266. a, 360; 
in exclam’n, 400; with ne 
and subj., 333, 385; with 
non, 373.1; for compound 
conj’n, 403. b; repeated, 
403. a; for st, 408. b. 

quel: 108, 271. 


quelconque : use, 112. a, 
285. 

quel que: 287. 

quelque: elis’n, 27; — use, 


—3; —invar., 282.1; — 
with que, 283. 
quelque chose : 
querer : 
qu’est-ce qui (que), 273.1. 
qui: interr., 108, 272: — re- 
lat., 109-10, 276 280-1; —_ 
in indef., 277, 288, 287. 
quiconque : 112, 286, 
Quint : 
quoi: ey .» 108, 274; — 
relat., 109, 279; — in in- 
def,, 287. 
quoique,; elis’n, 27. 


gender, 284, 


rs © tr 23; — not linked, 


en eg b heard, 28 (6). 
rapprendre: cf. prendre, 


ponscnie’ cf. eae’, 161. 

ravir ; a, 213 

ratteindre : ef i peindre, 161, 

rebouillir ; uillir, 161. 

recevoir : i 

reciprocal verbs: 144-50. 

reclure: cf. -clure, 161. 

Bet Song 3y : cf. conduire, 
161 


reconnattre: cf. naitre, 
161. 


reconquérir: ef. acquérir, 
161. 

reconstruire: cf. 
struire, 161. 

recoudre; cf. coudre, 161. 


con- 


recourir ; cf. courir, 161. 
recouvrir ; cf. couvrir, 161. 
récrire: ef. écrire, 161. 
recrottre ; cf. croitre, 161. 
recueillir ; cf. cueillir, 161. 
redéfaire ; cf. faire, 161. 
redevenir ; cf. devenir, 161. 
redire: cf. dire, 161. 


redoubler ; de, 311. g. 





INDEX. 


réduire: cf. conduire, 161. 
rélire : cf. lire, 161. 
refaire: cf. faire, 161. 
reflexive: pron., 100, 
constr’n, 103-5, 144-9; 
partic’ple in, 145. 4 368. Gc; 
— verbs with de, 2i1. g. 
refuir ; cf, fuir, 161, 
régal ; pl., 50.2. 
regular verbs: 112-53. 
rejoindre: cf. peindre, 161. 
relatives: 109-11, 271-81 (and 
of each). 
relire; cf, lire, 161. 
reluire: cf. conduire, 161. 
remettre : cf. mettre, 161. 
remoudre : cf. moudre, 161. 
renaitre: cf. nattre, 161. 
rendormir - cf. dormir, 161. 
renoncer : d, 218. d. 
rentraire ; cf. traire, 161. 
renvoyer : cf. envoyer, 161. 
repattre : cf. pattre, 161. 
pee ef. parattre, 
161. 


253 wa 


repartir ; cf. sentir, 161. 
repeindre : cf. peindre, 161. 
repentir ; cf. sentir, 161. 


répondre : a, 213. d. 

reprendre: cf. prendre, 161. 

a 1S gl cf. conduire, 
161 


requérir : cf. acquérir, 161. 
résister : a, 213. d. 
résoudre : 161. 

ressembler : a, 213. d. 
ressentir : cf. "sentir, 161. 
ressouvenir : cf. venir, 161. 
restraindre: cf. peindre, 


reteindre; cf. peindre, 161. 
réteindre:; cf. peindre, 161. 
retenir : cf. tenir, 161. 
retraire : cf, traire, 161. 
revaloir : ef. valoir, 161. 
revenir ; cf, venir, 161. 
revetir : cf. vetir, 161, 
revivre ; cf. vivre, 161. 
rhyme: 425 

rien: 112.4, , 290, 388, 388.1. 
rire: 161, 

rouvrir : cf, couvrir, 161, 
roux: £., 76.1 

rumb : b heard, 23 (bd). 


$. pron’n, 23-4(prop.nouns, 
24); —linking, 30, 32-3; 
— plur. sign, 47. B, 49; — 
doubled, 74; appended to 
certain verb-forms, 27.5. b, 
113. A (pers. end.), 127; 
— omitted in verse, 425.2; 
— retained in Engl., lost 
in Fr., 436. 

sache : irr, use, 339. 





saillir : 161. saint: 189.1. 
Sadne: a silent, 17 (ao). 
satisfaire : conj.; ef. bei 
161; — with d, 2138. d. 
savoir; irr., 161; — use, 
otk a, b; — with ne alone, 


sculpt : P silent, 23 (p). 
sc: pron’n, 23 (3). 

se: 100, 104, 253. 

sec : f., 16.1. 

second : c= J, 28 (¢). 
secourir ; cf. courir, 161. 
séduire : cf. conduire, 161. 
s’en aller : 149. 

sentir > 161. 

sens: s heard, 23 (8). 


sentence: accent, 10.2; —ar- ~ 


rangem’t (history, 407; di- 
rect, 409; inverted, 413). 
seoir : 161. 
sept: pron’n, 88. 
servir : cf. sentir, 161. 
serviteur : f., 78.1. 
seulement ; 388.2. 
si; @ elided, 27.5. a; — with 


cond’l, 295, 314; — with 
pres’t, 304, ’c; — with im- 
perf., "308: — with fut., 


311; — with subj., 3382; — 
Si or aussi, 398; — re- 
placed by que, 403. b. 
Si or Oui: 397. 
signet: g silent, 23 (gn). 
simple: place, 322. 
singular for plural: 184.1. 
soi + 100,}104~-5, 253. 
soit... soit: 401. 
sortir: conj., cf. sentir, 
161; with tre, 142 
soudre ; 161. 
souffrir : cf. couvrir, 161, 
sotil - l silent, 23 (7). 
souloir : 161. 
soumettre : cf. mettre, 161. 
sourcil : 1 silent, 23 (il). 
sourdre: 161 
souscrire ; cf. écrire, 161. 
soustraire: cf. traire, 161. 
soutenir : cf. tentr, 161. 
soutirer : &, 218. d. 
souvenir: cf. venir, 161. 
-sse: fem. end’g, 63. b. 
-st + pron’n, 23 (¢), 24. B. 
subjunctive: history, 319; — 
general use, 320. 

IN SUBORD. CLAUSES: 
general, 321-2; — classif’n, 
23; — reference-lists of 
words govern’g the subj. 
of uncertain completion 
(verbs and verb-phrases, 
325-327; conjunct, phrases 
and relat. pron,, 326-7); of 
emotion (verbs and verb- 


phrases. 328); of mental 
reserve (exclusive words, 
329; conjunct. and pron. 
phrases, 330); — after sé, 
332; —s ecial cases, 334; 
— use of tenses, 336; — 
replaced by infinit., 331. 
IN INDEPEND. CLAUSES: 
338; — sache, 339. 
subvenir : ef. venir, 161. 


sud; d heard, 23 (d). 

sufire: 161. 

suivre,: 161. 

superlative: form’n, 81-2, 
85; — with de, 211. d; — 
repet’n, 229; —no article, 
229.1; — absolute, 229.2: 
“= invariable, 230. 

supposé : infl., ” 220.4. 

ar Sega cf. crottre, 


surfaire: cf. faire, 161. 
surprendre: cf. prendre, 
surseoir: cf. asseoir, 161. 
survenir ; cf. venir, 161. 
survetir : cf. vétir, 161. 
survivre : cf. vivre, 161. 
syllabication: 9. 


zt: pron’n, 26; — linking, 
33; — doubled, 35, 74-4, 
126; added in verbs, 27.5. 
b; 118. a (pers. end.), 
151. b; — lost, p. 65 (foot- 
note), 134. 

tabac ; ¢ silent, 28 (c). 

taire; cf. plaire 161. 

ares que; elis’n, 27; use, 


tant mieux (pis), 398.1; 
emphat., 393.2. 
taon; ao in, 17. 





INDEX. 


teindre: cf. peindre, 161. 

tel: 112, 293 

tenir ; 161. 

-teur : nouns om 63. b, 78. 

-teuse: 63. b, 78 

tiers : 92.2. 

time: expressed, 90, 234, 
7 


237. 
tomber : with étre, 142. 
tous: sin, 23 (Ss). 
tout: 112. c, 112.5, 292; — 
a& coup (d’un coup), 399; 
— en, 367.1; — que, 292.3 
traduire: cf. con uire, 161. 
traire: 161. 
tranquille ; ill in, 23 (ill). 
transcrire ; cf. écrire, 161. 


transmettre: cf. mettre, 
is 

travail ; pl., 

tressaillir ; oa assaillir, 
161. 


-trice ; fem, end’g, 63. b, 78. 
tu : use of, 247-8. 


w (@): hist., 1; — pron’n, 
14; + vow., 17 (and cf. 


qu). 

ue; hist., 1; pron’n, 15, 17 
(u+ VOw.). 

wn: hist., 38; form, 42; use, 
197; omitted, 203-4. 

user; de or not, 211. g. 


vaincre : 161 (131). 

valoir ; 161. 

venir: conj. cf. tenir, 161; 
with étre, 142. 

verbs: history, 113, 295; — 
classif’n, 116-17; — reg., 
112-154; —irreg., 155-161; 
— agreem’t, 296-302; w. 
one of several subjects, 





293 


297-8; w. collect’s, 299; 
after ce, 300; after qui, 
301; after NOUS, VOUS, ON, 
302; — modes and tenses, 
see each, 

vers ; 216. f, 

verse: general, 421; — syl. 
lables and ceesura, 422; @ 
mute, 323; — hiatus, 424; 
— rhyme, 425; — words 
and constr’ns, 426; — en- 
jambement, 427; — kinds 
of, 428 

vétir : 161. 

vieux ; forms, 7 


ville : ill in, 23 “Gi. 

vingt : pron’n, 88. 

vis ; s heard, 23 (8). 

vivre : 161. 

voir: 161. 

vouloir ; 161. 

vous: use, 100.2, 247, 249; 


— verbs after, 302. 
vowels: history, 2; pron’n, 
14-19 (see each). 
vu: infi’n, 220.4, 


w.: pron’n, 23. 
‘what’: 280. 
‘ whose’: 111.1, 276. c. 


“2; pron’n, 23; — linking, 
30; — spurious sign, 47. B; 


—_ ‘plur. sign, 47. B, 49; — 
change to 8, 76. 
ys a toh 18; —or i, 36, 


oo: gE particle, 101, 
244; — y compris, 220.4. 


2: pron’n, 
zigzag: g poke 23 (9). 





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A Short French Grammar. 


By C. H. GRANDGENT, Director of Modern Language Instruction in the Boston 
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44 


46 FRENCH. 





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48 FRENCH. 





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le 

















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